Archaeological Evidence

Sites

• Sisupalgarh

  Sisupalgarh is a big walled city near Bhubaneswar, with an earth wall and moat around more than a square kilometre of land. Inside, people found pottery and clay seals copied from Roman coins.

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patra, n.d., p. 110]; [Mohanty, 2009, pp. 47-48]; [Smith, 2025, abstract]

  1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 110 ('The systematic excavation at Sisupalagarh (Lat. 20 deg 13' 30" N. and Long. 85 deg 51' 30" E.) near Bhubaneswar by B.B. Lal of ASI and subsequently by the State Department of Archaeology'. Occupied 3rd c. BCE to mid-4th c. CE; knobbed and rouletted ware, Roman-derived clay bullae.)
  2. R. K. Mohanty, Monica L. Smith. *Excavations at Sisupalgarh, 2008*. in Man and Environment XXXIV. 2009 , pp. 47-48 ('Sisupalgarh is a fortified Early Historic city ... Initially investigated by Lal (1949, 1991), the site is formally delineated by a rampart and moat enclosing over 1 km2 of ancient habitation.' The 2008 Deccan College/UCLA season cut the northern rampart and exposed 18 monolithic laterite pillars.)
  3. Monica L. Smith, Rabindra Kumar Mohanty. *Deurbanization as lateral stratigraphy: Three thousand years of settlement relocation at Sisupalgarh/Bhubaneswar, India*. in World Archaeology 57. 2025 , abstract (Abstract: 'the Early Historic city of Sisupalgarh (c. 3rd c. BCE-4th century CE), which was replaced by a new settlement 2 km away in the early Medieval period (starting c. 6th century CE), which was in turn superseded by ... Bhubaneswar 2.5 km further north in the 20th century.')

• Jaugada

  Jaugada is a ruined fort in south Odisha with Ashoka's orders carved on a big granite rock. Old pots, tiles and coins lie all over the ground inside its earth wall.

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09), 1908, vol. XIV, pp. 72-73, 'Jaugada']; [Patra, n.d., p. 109]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), pp. 28-29]

  1. *The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09)*. 1908. public domain , vol. XIV, pp. 72-73, 'Jaugada' ('Ruined fort in Ganjam District, Madras, situated in 19 deg 31' N. and 84 deg 50' E., about 18 miles west of Ganjam town, on the north bank of the Rushikulya ... a huge granite mass, on which are inscribed thirteen edicts of the Buddhist emperor Asoka (about 250 B.C.).')
  2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 109 ('At Jaugada ... the excavation has revealed a full-fledged iron-using culture' with plain and painted pottery, knobbed vessels, iron implements and beads of shell, bone, agate, crystal, carnelian and quartz; punch-marked and Puri-Kushana coins; an earthen rampart. Linked by the authors to Palur.)
  3. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), pp. 28-29 (Ashoka inscribed at Dhauli rock-edicts I-X and XIII, and 'Besides these general edicts, he also inscribed two edicts, known as the Kalinga edicts, in which he laid down principles for the administration of the newly conquered province'; the Jaugada version is treated alongside the Dhauli one.)

• Dhauli

  Dhauli is a low hill near Bhubaneswar where Ashoka had his orders carved into the rock. Just above the writing, the front half of an elephant is cut out of the stone.

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 317-318, 'Dhauli']; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), pp. 28-29]; [Patra, n.d., p. 109]

  1. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 317-318, 'Dhauli' ('Hill in the Khurda subdivision of Puri District, Bengal, situated in 20 deg 15' N. and 85 deg 50' E., about 7 miles south of Bhubaneswar. On its northern side is a version of Asoka's rock edicts. Above the inscription the forepart of an elephant has been carved out of the rock.')
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), pp. 28-29 ('In this district Asoka commemorated his rule by inscribing at Dhauli hill rock-edicts I-X and XIII', plus the two Kalinga edicts laying down principles for governing the newly conquered province and the tribes on its borders. Kalinga was incorporated in Ashoka's empire in 262 or 261 BCE.)
  3. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 109 ('the excavation conducted at Dhauli supplemented to the fact that during the period of Asoka there was the progress of urbanisation in Orissa'; Dhauli is treated as the urban settlement of Tosali, alongside Samapa (Jaugada).)

• Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves

  Two rocky hills near Bhubaneswar are honeycombed with caves cut for Jain monks. One cave carries King Kharavela's long inscription about his wars and his building works.

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XV, pp. 239-240, 'Khandgiri']; [Jayaswal, 1930, Jayaswal & Banerji, Epigraphia Indica XX (1929-30), No. 7, pp. 71-89]; [Patra, n.d., p. 115]

  1. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XV, pp. 239-240, 'Khandgiri' ('Hill ... situated in 20 deg 16' N. and 85 deg 47' E., about 4 miles west of Bhubaneswar ... two separate peaks, the northern one of which is called Udayagiri and the southern Khandgiri ... The caves ... were occupied by monks of the Jain sect, and not, as is usually stated, by Buddhists.')
  2. *Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela, Udayagiri*. ed. K. P. Jayaswal, R. D. Banerji. 1930. public domain , Jayaswal & Banerji, Epigraphia Indica XX (1929-30), No. 7, pp. 71-89 (The standard edition of the inscription over the Hathi Gumpha cave. Line 11 (translation p. 88) records Kharavela ploughing down 'the market-town (?) Pithumda founded by the Ava King'; line 13 records pearls brought from the Pandya king. Read from the archive.org scan of EI XX.)
  3. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 115 ('A close study of the art of the Khandagiri-Udayagiri caves reveals the use of west Asian decorative elements such as honey suckle, acanthus, stepped melons and winged animals'; pilasters in the Anantagumpha have ghata bases ornamented in a Hellenistic fashion.)

• Ratnagiri, Lalitgiri and Udayagiri Buddhist complex

  Three hills in Jajpur district hold the ruins of large Buddhist monasteries. Monks lived, studied and kept relics here for well over a thousand years.

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Pradhan, 2014, p. 109]; [Patra, n.d., pp. 111, 116]; [Patnaik, 2014b, p. 88]

  1. Atul Chandra Pradhan. *Situating Viraja Kshetra and Its Environs in the Odishan Historiography*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 109 (Lalitagiri, 'whose cultural sequence extends from 3rd century B.C. to 1200 A.D.'; a four-layer relic casket of khondalite, steatite, silver and gold. 'Sri Ratnagiri Mahavihariya Arya Bhikshu Sangha flourished from 5th century A.D. to 13th century A.D. on the Ratnagiri hillock (Lat. 20 deg 38' N)'.)
  2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 111, 116 (Gives Lalitgiri 20 deg 35' N / 86 deg 15' E, Udayagiri 20 deg 38' 45" N / 86 deg 16' 25" E, Ratnagiri 20 deg 38' N / 86 deg 20' E; the nested Lalitgiri caskets are 'a feature alien in Orissa but common in China'; an Astamahabhaya Tara, who protects sailors from shipwreck, came from Ratnagiri.)
  3. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Kankia-Radhanagar: An Early Historical Buddhist Settlement*. in Odisha Review. 2014b , p. 88 ('At a distance of 20 to 30 kms north-east of Kankia also have large Buddhist sites like Ratnagiri, Udayagiri, and Lalitgiri which all are excavated by Archaeological Survey of India in the recent past.')

• Radhanagar

  Radhanagar is an old town in Jajpur district ringed by a huge mud wall. Diggers found coins, beads and pottery that had come from far away.

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patnaik, 2014b, pp. 88-94]; [Patra, n.d., p. 110]

  1. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Kankia-Radhanagar: An Early Historical Buddhist Settlement*. in Odisha Review. 2014b , pp. 88-94 (p. 88: 'Kankia (Lat: 20 deg 41' Long: 86 deg 11') locally known as Radhanagar', on the right bank of the Kelua, 30 km from the present shore; excavated 2010-13; occupied 4th-3rd c. BCE to 4th-5th c. CE, then sporadically 7th-8th to 13th-14th c. CE. p. 89: c. 902,500 sq m inside a mud fortification.)
  2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 110 (Radhanagara is named with Sisupalagarh and Manikpatna as the Orissan find-spots of rouletted ware, alongside Chandraketugarh and Tamluk in Bengal, Salihundam and Dharanikota in Andhra, Kaveripatnam, Uraiyur and Arikamedu in Tamil Nadu, and sites in Java, Bali, Vietnam and Sri Lanka.)

• Golbai Sasan

  Golbai Sasan is a village mound near Chilika lake where people lived for thousands of years. They left behind stone tools for shaping wood, bone fish hooks and burnt grains of rice.

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patra, n.d., pp. 108-109]; [Kingwell-Banham, 2018a, pp. 1-3]

  1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 108-109 (Excavated by the ASI Excavation Branch, Bhubaneswar, under B. K. Sinha; Neolithic c. 1600 BCE, Chalcolithic c. 1400-900 BCE, Iron Age c. 900-800 BCE, C14 pushing the earliest level to 2300 BCE. 'adzes for wood working gives the positive indication that Golbai was a boat-building centre.')
  2. Eleanor Kingwell-Banham, Emma Karoune, Rabindra Kumar Mohanty, Dorian Q. Fuller. *Archaeobotanical Investigations into Golbai Sasan and Gopalpur, Two Neolithic-Chalcolithic Settlements of Odisha*. in Ancient Asia 9. 2018a , pp. 1-3 (A large stratified mound in the coastal lowlands near Chilika; earliest levels Neolithic, often dated c. 4500-3200 BP. 'The latest levels have been dated to the Iron Age (c.2500 BP-1500 BP).' Macro-remains and phytoliths give rice, pulses and millets, with new AMS radiocarbon dates.)

• Ujjayini (Ujjain)

  Ujjayini was one of the four great capitals of Ashoka's empire, far to the west of Kalinga. Ashoka's own rock-carved orders say officers travelled between it and Kalinga to check his laws were followed.

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Hultzsch, 1925, Hultzsch, CII I (1925), First Separate Rock Edict, clause AA, p. 97; identification pp. xxxvii-xxxviii]; [Kulke, 1998, 3rd edn (Routledge, 1998), p. 67]

  1. *Separate Rock Edicts of Ashoka at Dhauli and Jaugada*. ed. Eugen Hultzsch. 1925. public domain , Hultzsch, CII I (1925), First Separate Rock Edict, clause AA, p. 97; identification pp. xxxvii-xxxviii ('But from Ujjayini also the prince (governor) will send out for the same purpose a person of the same description ... not (more than) three years.' p. xxxvii: 'Ujjayini, the capital of Avanti ... is the modern Ujjain.')
  2. Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermund. *A History of India*. Routledge. 1998 , 3rd edn (Routledge, 1998), p. 67 ('Then there were four large provinces governed by princes ... as governors or viceroys ... the viceroy of the west at Ujjain', alongside Taxila (northwest) and Tosali in Kalinga (east).)

• Salihundam

  Salihundam is a hill covered in old Buddhist buildings, beside the Vamsadhara river in Andhra Pradesh. Monks lived there for a thousand years, and diggers found five monasteries, stupas and pottery that had travelled from far away.

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Subrahmanyam, 1964, pp. 2-3, 8-9, 29-30]; [Patra, n.d., p. 110]

  1. R. Subrahmanyam. *Salihundam: A Buddhist Site in Andhra Pradesh*. Hyderabad: Government of Andhra Pradesh. 1964. public domain , pp. 2-3, 8-9, 29-30 (p.3: '18 13' North by 84' 15' East', four miles from Kalingapatnam, 'now a defunct sea-port town'. p.9: three phases, Early (2nd-3rd c. BC-1st c. AD), Middle (1st-3rd/4th c. AD), Late (4th/5th-7th/8th c. AD). pp.29-30: 'five monasteries with kitchens and dining halls' opened.)
  2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 110 (Salihundam listed with Dharanikota (Andhra), Chandraketugarh and Tamluk (Bengal), and Sisupalgarh, Manikpatna and Radhanagara (Odisha) as a find-spot of the same rouletted ware distribution, read as evidence of a shared Bay of Bengal trading network.)

• Takshashila (Taxila)

  Takshashila was Ashoka's capital in the far northwest of his empire, near modern Pakistan. His own rock-carved orders say officers travelled from there to Kalinga too, to check his laws were followed.

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Hultzsch, 1925, Hultzsch, CII I (1925), First Separate Rock Edict, clause BB, p. 97; identification pp. xxxvii-xxxviii]; [Kulke, 1998, 3rd edn (Routledge, 1998), p. 67]

  1. *Separate Rock Edicts of Ashoka at Dhauli and Jaugada*. ed. Eugen Hultzsch. 1925. public domain , Hultzsch, CII I (1925), First Separate Rock Edict, clause BB, p. 97; identification pp. xxxvii-xxxviii ('In the same way (an officer will be deputed) from Takshasila also.' p. xxxviii: Takshasila 'was identified by Cunningham with Shahdheri in the Rawalpindi district, Panjab.')
  2. Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermund. *A History of India*. Routledge. 1998 , 3rd edn (Routledge, 1998), p. 67 ('The viceroy of the northwest resided at Taxila', one of the four Mauryan provincial capitals alongside Ujjain (west) and Tosali in Kalinga (east).)

Inscriptions

• Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela

  A long message about King Kharavela is carved in a cave near Bhubaneswar. It lists the towns he attacked and the pearls, jewels and elephants sent to him.

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Jayaswal, 1930, K. P. Jayaswal & R. D. Banerji, Epigraphia Indica XX (1929-30), pp. 71-89; text of lines 11-13 at pp. 79-80; notes 34, 40, 42, 43 at p. 85; translation at pp. 86-89; geography at p. 78]; [Sircar, 1965, No. 91, 'Hathigumpha Cave Inscription of Kharavela', pp. 213-221; language, script and dating at p. 213 with n. 1; variant readings of line 11 at p. 217, n. 1]

  1. *Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela, Udayagiri*. ed. K. P. Jayaswal, R. D. Banerji. 1930. public domain , K. P. Jayaswal & R. D. Banerji, Epigraphia Indica XX (1929-30), pp. 71-89; text of lines 11-13 at pp. 79-80; notes 34, 40, 42, 43 at p. 85; translation at pp. 86-89; geography at p. 78 (Read in the ASI scan of Epigraphia Indica XX on archive.org (item in.ernet.dli.2015.56671).)
  2. *Select Inscriptions Bearing on Indian History and Civilization, Volume I: From the Sixth Century B.C. to the Sixth Century A.D.*. ed. Dines Chandra Sircar. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. 1965 , No. 91, 'Hathigumpha Cave Inscription of Kharavela', pp. 213-221; language, script and dating at p. 213 with n. 1; variant readings of line 11 at p. 217, n. 1 (Later independent edition. Disagrees with Jayaswal & Banerji on the date and on several trade-relevant readings.)

• Ashoka's two Separate Rock Edicts at Dhauli

  Ashoka had two special messages carved on a rock at Dhauli. They tell his officers in the town of Tosali how to treat people fairly.

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Hultzsch, 1925, E. Hultzsch, Inscriptions of Asoka (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum I, new edn, Oxford, 1925): first separate edict pp. 92-97, second pp. 97-100; description of the rock pp. xiii-xiv; Tosali and the province of Kalinga pp. xxxvii-xxxviii]; [Epigraphia Indica, n.d., Vol. XX (1929-30), J. Ph. Vogel, 'Prakrit Inscriptions from a Buddhist Site at Nagarjunikonda', p. 8]; [Patra, n.d., OHRJ XLVII(2), pp. 109-110]

  1. *Separate Rock Edicts of Ashoka at Dhauli and Jaugada*. ed. Eugen Hultzsch. 1925. public domain , E. Hultzsch, Inscriptions of Asoka (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum I, new edn, Oxford, 1925): first separate edict pp. 92-97, second pp. 97-100; description of the rock pp. xiii-xiv; Tosali and the province of Kalinga pp. xxxvii-xxxviii (Read in the archive.org scan of Hultzsch's 1925 edition (searchable text).)
  2. *Epigraphia Indica*. Archaeological Survey of India. n.d. , Vol. XX (1929-30), J. Ph. Vogel, 'Prakrit Inscriptions from a Buddhist Site at Nagarjunikonda', p. 8 ('Asoka's two separate Rock-Edicts of Dhauli are addressed to the Governor and the magistrates (Mahamatras) of Tosali. This enables us to locate Tosali in Kalinga.')
  3. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , OHRJ XLVII(2), pp. 109-110 (Dhauli and Jaugada as the urban and political centres of Kalinga under Ashoka Maurya.)

• Ashoka's two Separate Rock Edicts at Jaugada

  The same two messages from Ashoka are carved on a rock inside an old fort at Jaugada. Here they are addressed to his officers in a town called Samapa.

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Hultzsch, 1925, E. Hultzsch, Inscriptions of Asoka (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum I, new edn, Oxford, 1925): first separate edict pp. 111-116, second pp. 116-118; description of the rock pp. xiv-xv; Samapa and Khepingala p. xxxviii]; [Patra, n.d., OHRJ XLVII(2), p. 109 (excavation and finds), p. 113 (argument linking the Jaugada edicts to the port of Palur)]

  1. *Separate Rock Edicts of Ashoka at Dhauli and Jaugada*. ed. Eugen Hultzsch. 1925. public domain , E. Hultzsch, Inscriptions of Asoka (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum I, new edn, Oxford, 1925): first separate edict pp. 111-116, second pp. 116-118; description of the rock pp. xiv-xv; Samapa and Khepingala p. xxxviii (Translation of the second separate edict at pp. 117-118: 'The Mahamatras at Samapa have to be told (this) at the word of the king.')
  2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , OHRJ XLVII(2), p. 109 (excavation and finds), p. 113 (argument linking the Jaugada edicts to the port of Palur) (Reports punch-marked and Puri-Kushana coins, knobbed vessels and an earthen rampart at Jaugada.)

• Bodhisiri's inscription at Nagarjunakonda (inscription F)

  A woman named Bodhisiri paid for a Buddhist shrine at Nagarjunakonda. Her carved message lists faraway lands that monks from Sri Lanka had reached, and one of them is Tosali in Kalinga.

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Epigraphia Indica, n.d., Vol. XX (1929-30), No. 1, J. Ph. Vogel, 'Prakrit Inscriptions from a Buddhist Site at Nagarjunikonda', pp. 1-37; list of countries summarised p. 7; discussion of Tosali, Dosarene and the damaged name p. 8; description of inscription F p. 14; dating of the king p. 6]; [Kulke, 1998, A History of India, 3rd edn (Routledge, 1998), p. 96]

  1. *Epigraphia Indica*. Archaeological Survey of India. n.d. , Vol. XX (1929-30), No. 1, J. Ph. Vogel, 'Prakrit Inscriptions from a Buddhist Site at Nagarjunikonda', pp. 1-37; list of countries summarised p. 7; discussion of Tosali, Dosarene and the damaged name p. 8; description of inscription F p. 14; dating of the king p. 6 (Read in the ASI scan of Epigraphia Indica XX on archive.org. I could not reach the transcript pages of inscription F in that scan.)
  2. Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermund. *A History of India*. Routledge. 1998 , A History of India, 3rd edn (Routledge, 1998), p. 96 (Independently summarises the same inscription and its list, naming 'Toshali and Vanga (Orissa and Bengal)' among the countries.)

• Kharoshthi potsherd from Manikapatna

  A broken pot from the old port of Manikapatna has two lines of writing scratched on it. The letters belong to Kharoshthi, a script used far away in north-west India.

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patra, n.d., OHRJ XLVII(2), p. 112; reference given at p. 118, n. 28]

  1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , OHRJ XLVII(2), p. 112; reference given at p. 118, n. 28 ('The two lined Kharosthi inscription on a pot shred discovered from here has been deciphered as "Dasatradeva" and "Khida" of 2nd century A.D (by B.N Mukherjee).')