Kalinga: Ancient Trade Routes

Explore how Odisha connected with the world across two millennia, port by port, route by route, century by century.

Drag the timeline to change the century. Tap a glowing dot to open a port. Every fact shows how sure we are and where it comes from.

The map of Kalinga's ports

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Mauryan Kalinga · 300 BCE – 185 BCE

Kalinga is conquered by Ashoka. His edicts at Dhauli and Jaugada are the oldest written records here.

Trade Routes

Follow the sea lanes, coast roads and rivers that carried Kalinga’s ships and caravans.

See all 28

Dhauli to Jaugada

Ashoka had his officers carve the very same orders on rocks at Dhauli and at Jaugada. The two towns ran his new province of Kalinga together, so people must have travelled between them.
Probable Archaeology
Sources: [Hultzsch, 1925, Hultzsch, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum I (1925), pp. xiii-xv, xxxvii-xxxviii]; [Kulke, 1998, 3rd edn (Routledge, 1998), pp. 63-64]
1. *Separate Rock Edicts of Ashoka at Dhauli and Jaugada*. ed. Eugen Hultzsch. 1925. public domain , Hultzsch, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum I (1925), pp. xiii-xv, xxxvii-xxxviii (Both sites carry the same two Separate Rock Edicts, addressed respectively to the Mahamatras of Tosali (Dhauli) and of Samapa (Jaugada); Hultzsch treats the two as the administrative centres of one Mauryan province, Kalinga.)
2. Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermund. *A History of India*. Routledge. 1998 , 3rd edn (Routledge, 1998), pp. 63-64 (Describes the edicts at Dhauli and Jaugada together, with the governor seated at Tosali - both sites presented as seats of one Mauryan provincial administration.)
Jaugada to Palur

Jaugada was a walled town up the Rushikulya river with Ashoka's orders carved on a rock. Scholars think its harbour was Palur, down at the river mouth.
Probable Scholars say
Sources: [Patra, n.d., pp. 109, 113]; [The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09), 1908, vol. XIV, pp. 72-73, 'Jaugada']; [Patra, 2014, pp. 121-122]
1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 109, 113 (p. 113: 'The very location of the Asokan Edicts at Jaugarh, a place far away from the actual scene of the war i.e. Dhauli is an indication of its association with the port of Palur, a well known ancient port of Kalinga.' p. 109: Palur, near the Rushikulya, was a port of international repute.)
2. *The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09)*. 1908. public domain , vol. XIV, pp. 72-73, 'Jaugada' ('Ruined fort in Ganjam District, Madras, situated in 19 deg 31' N. and 84 deg 50' E., about 18 miles west of Ganjam town, on the north bank of the Rushikulya', carrying thirteen edicts of Ashoka on a granite mass.)
3. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 121-122 (Palur is placed 'just above the mouth of Rushikulya'. Przyluski derived Palura from Dravidian words meaning 'tooth city' and linked the name to elephant tusks, 'probably one of the important items of export'; Kongoda bred elephants of good quality.)
Chilika coast to Arikamedu

Arikamedu near Pondicherry traded with the Roman world. Broken jars and the same patterned pottery turn up at Odisha's ports as well.
Probable Archaeology
Sources: [Patra, n.d., pp. 110-111]; [Patnaik, 2014a, p. 103]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint pp. 12-16, section 'Arikamedu']
1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 110-111 (p. 111: 'The rouletted wares of Manikpatna have much similarity with those of Sisupalagarh and Arikamedu.' p. 110: the same ware from Kaveripatnam, Uraiyur and Arikamedu is grouped with the Odishan finds as one Roman trade network along the east coast.)
2. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , p. 103 ('the land routes extended from Taxila to Kaveripattinam in the south and Tamluk in the east up to Broach in the west'; Tosali, Kalingapatnam, Tamralipti and Pithunda were 'all in the trade circuit'.)
3. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint pp. 12-16, section 'Arikamedu' ('Arikamedu (11 deg 53' N; 79 deg 48' E), a well-known Indo-Roman trading station, is identified with "Pouduke" of the Periplus Maris Erythraei and Ptolemy.' Journal pagination not verified.)
Sisupalgarh to Manikapatna

Sisupalgarh was a huge walled city a little way inland, and Manikapatna was a port on Chilika lake not far away. The very same kind of patterned pottery has been found in both places.
Probable Archaeology
Sources: [Patra, n.d., p. 110]; [Patra, 2014, p. 118]
1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 110 (Rouletted ware from Sisupalagarh, Manikpatna and Radhanagara in Orissa is listed together with the same ware from sites across the Bay of Bengal, read by the authors as evidence of one shared trade network.)
2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 118 ('people from different parts used to come by land and river route to the nearest port, then made a coastal voyage to different big ports' - the general model of inland centres feeding the nearest port.)
Udayagiri-Khandagiri to Pithunda

King Kharavela's own carved message says he destroyed a market town called Pithunda. His army must have marched there from his capital, near the Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves.
Probable Archaeology
Sources: [Jayaswal, 1930, Jayaswal & Banerji, Epigraphia Indica XX (1929-30), line 11, translation p. 88]; [Patra, n.d., p. 113]; [Patra, 2014, p. 123]
1. *Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela, Udayagiri*. ed. K. P. Jayaswal, R. D. Banerji. 1930. public domain , Jayaswal & Banerji, Epigraphia Indica XX (1929-30), line 11, translation p. 88 ('And the market-town (?) Pithumda founded by the Ava King he ploughs down with a plough of asses' - Kharavela's own record of destroying Pithunda in his eleventh regnal year.)
2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 113 ('The very location of the Asokan Edicts at Jaugarh, a place far away from the actual scene of the war i.e. Dhauli is an indication of its association with the port of Palur' - the authors read Kharavela's campaign as directed down this same southern coastal corridor towards Pithunda.)
3. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 123 (Pithunda 'could be located somewhere near Chicacole region of modern Andhra Pradesh', south of Palur along the same coast.)
Barua to Kalingapatnam

Barua and Kalingapatnam both sat where small rivers meet the sea. Kalingapatnam was the bigger of the two, and its name means 'town of the Kalinga people'.
Probable Scholars say
Sources: [Patra, 2014, pp. 118, 123]
1. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 118, 123 (p. 118 sets out the general model of short coastal hops. Barua ('now in Andhra Pradesh, 6 km from Sompeta', p. 123) and Kalingapatnam, at the Vamsadhara mouth, are discussed together as neighbouring ancient ports on the same stretch of coast.)

Ancient Ports

Harbours on the Odisha coast where ships were loaded, taxed and sent across the Bay of Bengal.

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Kalingapatnam

Kalingapatnam sits where the Vamsadhara river meets the sea. Its name means the town of the Kalinga people, and ships used it for a very long time.
Strongly Supported Archaeology
Sources: [The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09), 1908, vol. IX, pp. 291-292, 'Calingapatam']; [Patra, 2014, pp. 122-123]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 20, section 'Kalingapatnam']; [Patra, n.d., p. 107]
1. *The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09)*. 1908. public domain , vol. IX, pp. 291-292, 'Calingapatam' ('Port in the Chicacole taluk of Ganjam District, Madras, situated in 18 deg 20' N. and 84 deg 8' E., at the mouth of the Vamsadhara river.' Ruins of many mosques; small gold coins of great age found on the old city site. Open roadstead with a lighthouse; exports 6 lakhs in 1903-4.)
2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 122-123 (At the Vamsadhara mouth, Srikakulam district. An excavation in 1928 found pottery, large brick walls and glazed tiles showing a fortified city from c. 2nd century BCE to early medieval times; ASI work of 1977-79 in the stupa mound dated settlement to 300 BCE. Roman coins from the site.)
3. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 20, section 'Kalingapatnam' ('Kalingapatnam (18 deg 19' N; 84 deg 06' E), an ancient port city as well as a notable Buddhist centre ... a flourishing port under the Ganga rulers, and during ancient times, vessels from here sailed to Sri Lanka, Java, Sumatra, Malaysia and other countries.' Journal pagination not verified.)
4. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 107 (Lists Kalingapatnam among the ports of ancient Orissa brought to light by archaeological excavation.)
Manikapatna

Manikapatna is an old port on the shore of Chilika lake. People digging there found coins and broken pots from China, Sri Lanka and lands far to the west.
Strongly Supported Archaeology
Sources: [Tripati, 2021, pp. 1211-1212]; [Patra, n.d., pp. 111-112]; [Patnaik, 2014a, pp. 104-105]; [Tripati, 2022, Introduction; Sci. Rep. 12:13559]; [Patra, 2014, p. 120]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 23, section 'Manikapatna']
1. Sila Tripati. *Indo-Arabian stone anchor of Manikapatna, Odisha, east coast of India: an indicator of maritime contacts of Odisha*. in Current Science 120. 2021 , pp. 1211-1212 (p. 1211: OIMSEAS, Bhubaneswar excavated 1989-1993; site lies on the bank of Chilika Lake in Brahmagiri taluk, Puri district. p. 1212: two periods, 2nd c. BCE to 5th-6th c. CE and 9th to 19th c. CE; Kharoshthi inscription, knobbed and rouletted ware, Puri-Kushan and Chola coins, Yuan/Ming porcelain.)
2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 111-112 (Finds list: Chinese celadon and porcelain, rouletted pottery and amphora fragments, knobbed ware, Burmese and Siamese pottery, a Ceylonese coin of Sahassamalla, Indonesian terracotta, egg-white Arabian ware, and a Kharoshthi potsherd read as 'Dasatradeva'.)
3. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , pp. 104-105 (Excavation seasons 1989-90 and 1992-93; site c. 45 km south of Puri; mounds topped by the 13th-c. Bhabakundaleswar temple; period I 2nd c. BCE to 5th-6th c. CE, period II 9th c. to early 19th c. CE; East India Company copper coins, Mughal and Shah Alam coins, a British medal.)
4. Sila Tripati, Jyotiranjan S. Ray, Rudra Prasad Behera, Prakash Babu, Milan Kumar Mahala, Murali Kocherla, Vijay Khedekar. *Geochemical provenance of an Indo-Arabian stone anchor from Manikapatna highlights the medieval maritime trade of India*. in Scientific Reports 12. 2022 , Introduction; Sci. Rep. 12:13559 (Confirms OIMSEAS 1989-1993 and Deccan College 2010 excavations, same two phases; a stone anchor near the mosque, 2018-19. Also: 'Chinese ceramic sherds ... of the 13th to 14th century CE ... produced in Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces of China' (pers. comm. Ran Zhang).)
5. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 120 (Prints a coordinate for the site: 'Lat. 19 deg 43' 54" N and Long. 85 deg 33' 14" E', in the northern tip of the Chilika Lake, Brahmagiri tahsil, Puri district. Also the Sahassamalla-coin network linking Manikpatna, Polonnaruva and Kotchina (Sumatra), and Maratuan (Burmese) brown glazed ware.)
6. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 23, section 'Manikapatna' (Independently gives 19 deg 43' N; 85 deg 34' E, agreeing with Patra 2014 to the arc-minute. Records Abul Fazl (1595-96) on Manikapatna as a large port where salt tax was collected. Journal pagination not verified.)
Pithunda

Pithunda was a busy market town by the sea that King Kharavela says he destroyed. Nobody has dug it up, so we do not know exactly where it stood.
Hypothetical Scholars say
Sources: [Jayaswal, 1930, Jayaswal & Banerji, Epigraphia Indica XX (1929-30), No. 7, pp. 71-89: translation of line 11 on p. 88, editors' note 34 on p. 85]; [Patra, 2014, p. 123]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 21, section 'Pithunda'; and p. 20, section 'Kalingapatnam']
1. *Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela, Udayagiri*. ed. K. P. Jayaswal, R. D. Banerji. 1930. public domain , Jayaswal & Banerji, Epigraphia Indica XX (1929-30), No. 7, pp. 71-89: translation of line 11 on p. 88, editors' note 34 on p. 85 (p. 88, line 11: 'And the market-town (?) Pithumda founded by the Ava King he ploughs down with a plough of asses.' Note 34, p. 85: 'According to Ptolemy, a city in the upper part of the Coromandal coast; This city has perhaps to be taken as the capital of the Ava or Avarni.')
2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 123 (Pithunda in the Hathigumpha inscription (Kharavela's 11th regnal year), Ptolemy's Pityndra midway between the Godavari and Mahanadi mouths, and Pihumda of the Jain Uttaradhyayana Sutra, all equated by Sylvain Levi. 'could be located somewhere near Chicacole region of modern Andhra Pradesh'.)
3. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 21, section 'Pithunda'; and p. 20, section 'Kalingapatnam' (Repeats Levi's equation and places Pithunda 'somewhere near the Chicacole region (Srikakulam region)'; on p. 20 suggests instead that it 'seems to have been located somewhat close to Kalingapatnam at the mouth of the river Vamsadhara'. Journal pagination not verified.)
Barua

Barua was a port the Greek geographer Ptolemy wrote about long ago. It stood where a small river reaches the sea, in what is now Andhra Pradesh.
Probable Scholars say
Sources: [Patra, 2014, p. 123]
1. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 123 ('Barua or Barwah ... lies in Lat. 18 deg 51' N and Long. 84 deg 35' E ... 33 miles south of Berhampur ... now in Andhra Pradesh, 6 km from Sompeta.' 'From the accounts of Ptolemy ... the port-town of Barua was one of the important trade centres ... during the ancient period.')
Palur

Palur is an old port village near the mouth of the Rushikulya river in south Odisha. People found bits of Chinese and Mediterranean pots there, which shows traders came from far away.
Strongly Supported Archaeology
Sources: [Patra, n.d., p. 109]; [Patra, 2014, p. 121]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint pp. 20-21, section 'Palur']; [Sahu, 2026, Times of India, 1 August 2026]
1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 109 (Prints 'Palur (Lat 19 deg 27' E. and Long 85 deg 11' N.)' with the labels reversed. Exploration by A. Nath (ASI) and K. S. Behera at Palur (Kantigarh) found Chinese celadon, rouletted ware and amphora pieces; K. K. Basa's survey found a possible lighthouse pillar and a stamped boat motif nearby.)
2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 121 (Gerini: Ptolemy's Paloura = modern Palur, 'at Lat. 19 deg 27' N and Long. 85 deg 11' E, just above the mouth of Rushikulya'. Same page: 'On linguistic grounds, S. Levi identifies Dantapura ... and Dandagula of Pliny with Paloura of Ptolemy', citing Indian Antiquary LV (1926), pp. 98-99.)
3. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint pp. 20-21, section 'Palur' ('Palur (19 deg 27' N; 85 deg 11' E), situated in the Ganjam district of Odisha, was mentioned as an important port on the eastern coast of India.' Kantigarh explorations yielded Chinese celadon, rouletted ware and Mediterranean amphora. Journal pagination not verified.)
4. Diana Sahu. *Digging at Palur reveals thriving maritime hub from pre-Mauryan era*. in The Times of India. 2026 , Times of India, 1 August 2026 ('Nine cultural layers ... nearly three metres ... from the pre-Mauryan period through the Early Historic and Early Medieval phases.' NBPW, knobbed and red polished ware; 363 graffiti sherds; beads. A conference report on the 2023-25 dig, not yet published; 'lends strong support' to Palur=Paloura.)
Sonapur

Sonapur was an old port where the Bahuda river meets the sea in south Odisha. Ships loaded up on oysters here until sand banks blocked the way in.
Probable Scholars say
Sources: [Patra, 2014, pp. 121-122]
1. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 121-122 ('Sonapur ... lies in Lat. 19 deg 6' N and Long. 84 deg 47' E ... where river Bahuda enters into the Bay of Bengal 20 km away from Berhampur.' Sand bars later 'offered obstruction to shipping and the port lost its importance.' Cites Maltby, Ganjam District Manual (1918), p. 34.)

Goods & Commodities

What was in the ship? Elephants, cloth, salt, shells and more, each with the record that proves it.

See all 28

Cotton cloth and muslin

Kautilya's handbook put Kalinga on its short list of the seven best cotton-weaving lands in India.
Strongly Supported Scholars say
Sources: [Kautilya, n.d., Book II, ch. 11]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. II, pp. 40, 247]; [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]
1. Kautilya. *Arthashastra*. n.d. public domain , Book II, ch. 11 ('Of cotton fabrics, those of Madhura, of Aparanta, of Kalinga, of Kasi, of Vanga, of Vatsa, and of Mahisha are the best.' Read in Shamasastry's translation, p. 84.)
2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II, pp. 40, 247 (p. 40: the Orissa factors 'bought up at the lowest prices for ready money the fine muslins of Cattack'. p. 247: 'the Cattack and Balasor muslins formed an important item in the yearly Investments'.)
3. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 ('Piece goods' heads both the list of exports liable to duty and the list of goods imported from the adjoining districts of Bengal.)
Elephants

A stone carving at Bhubaneswar shows an elephant standing on the deck of a ship, ready to sail away.
Strongly Supported Scholars say
Sources: [Kautilya, n.d., Book II, ch. 2]; [Xuanzang, 7th century CE, vol. II, p. 207]; [Patra, n.d., p. 114]; [Stirling, 1825, p. 182]
1. Kautilya. *Arthashastra*. n.d. public domain , Book II, ch. 2 ('Elephants bred in countries, such as Kalinga, Anga, Karusa, and the East are the best.' Read in R. Shamasastry's translation, Mysore Printing and Publishing House, p. 49 (archive.org in.ernet.dli.2015.102722). Kangle's numbering not verified.)
2. Xuanzang. *Record of the Western Regions (Da Tang Xiyu Ji)*. 7th century CE. public domain , vol. II, p. 207 (Beal 1884: Kalinga 'produces the great tawny wild elephant, which are much prized by neighbouring provinces'; neighbouring Kongoda has 'the great greenish-blue elephant'.)
3. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 114 (Brahmeswar temple ship frieze, c. 9th century CE: 'elephant was an item of export among many other items'.)
4. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 182 (On wild elephants poisoned near Mayurbhanj: 'it seems highly probable that the Elephant is not indigenous to the province, and it is said that the breed had its origin in the escape of some of the tame animals from their keepers in former ages.')
Semi-precious stone beads

At Palur, archaeologists found beads of carnelian, agate, jasper, quartz and faience, small enough to fit in your pocket but valuable enough to trade.
Probable Archaeology
Sources: [Sahu, 2026, Times of India, 1 August 2026]
1. Diana Sahu. *Digging at Palur reveals thriving maritime hub from pre-Mauryan era*. in The Times of India. 2026 , Times of India, 1 August 2026 ('The assemblage includes beads made of carnelian, agate, jasper, quartz and faience, besides glass bangles, ivory artefacts and shell objects, pointing to Palur's participation in long-distance trade networks linking eastern India with Southeast Asia.')
Amphora jars

Bits of amphorae, the tall two-handled jars used all round the Roman world, turned up at Manikapatna and Palur.
Probable Archaeology
Sources: [Patra, n.d., pp. 109, 111]; [Patra, 2014, p. 120]
1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 109, 111 (p. 109: exploration around Palur (Kantigarh) 'unearthed fragments of the Chinese celadon ware, the Roman rouletted ware, amphora pieces etc.'. p. 111: Manikapatna yielded 'Roman rouletted pottery and fragments of amphora'.)
2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 120 ('The discovery of rouletted ware, fragments of amphora etc., indicate its contact with the Roman Empire in the early centuries CE' (Manikapatna).)
Ivory

Greek sailors had a special name for elephant tusks from this coast: Dosarenic ivory.
Probable Scholars say
Sources: [Anonymous, 1989, section 62]; [Patra, 2014, p. 122]
1. Anonymous. *The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation, and Commentary*. trans. Lionel Casson. Princeton University Press. 1989 , section 62 ('Dosarene, yielding the ivory known as Dosarenic'. Section number is standard across editions. Casson's page NOT verified: the 1989 Princeton edition is lending-restricted on archive.org, so the wording was read in W. H. Schoff's 1912 translation via ToposText.)
2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 122 ('The ivory yielded in Dosarene was known as dosarenic'; also summarises the rival identifications of Dosarene.)
Roman coins

Real Roman coins have been dug up both at Kalingapatnam and in the Mayurbhanj hills.
Probable Archaeology
Sources: [Patra, n.d., p. 110]; [Patra, 2014, pp. 122-123]
1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 110 ('Roman gold coins from Bamanghati in Mayurbhanj' are 'argued to have arrived through Tamluk' (Tamralipti), alongside large quantities of rouletted ware from the port.)
2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 122-123 (At Kalingapatnam, on the Vamsadhara mouth: an excavation in 1928 found pottery, brick walls and glazed tiles, and ASI work of 1977-79 dated settlement to 300 BCE; Roman coins are reported from the site.)

Archaeological Evidence

Dug-up cities, carved edicts and broken pots: the hard evidence behind every claim on this site.

See all 15

Dhauli

Dhauli is a low hill near Bhubaneswar where Ashoka had his orders carved into the rock. Just above the writing, the front half of an elephant is cut out of the stone.
Strongly Supported Archaeology
Sources: [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 317-318, 'Dhauli']; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), pp. 28-29]; [Patra, n.d., p. 109]
1. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 317-318, 'Dhauli' ('Hill in the Khurda subdivision of Puri District, Bengal, situated in 20 deg 15' N. and 85 deg 50' E., about 7 miles south of Bhubaneswar. On its northern side is a version of Asoka's rock edicts. Above the inscription the forepart of an elephant has been carved out of the rock.')
2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), pp. 28-29 ('In this district Asoka commemorated his rule by inscribing at Dhauli hill rock-edicts I-X and XIII', plus the two Kalinga edicts laying down principles for governing the newly conquered province and the tribes on its borders. Kalinga was incorporated in Ashoka's empire in 262 or 261 BCE.)
3. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 109 ('the excavation conducted at Dhauli supplemented to the fact that during the period of Asoka there was the progress of urbanisation in Orissa'; Dhauli is treated as the urban settlement of Tosali, alongside Samapa (Jaugada).)
Golbai Sasan

Golbai Sasan is a village mound near Chilika lake where people lived for thousands of years. They left behind stone tools for shaping wood, bone fish hooks and burnt grains of rice.
Strongly Supported Archaeology
Sources: [Patra, n.d., pp. 108-109]; [Kingwell-Banham, 2018a, pp. 1-3]
1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 108-109 (Excavated by the ASI Excavation Branch, Bhubaneswar, under B. K. Sinha; Neolithic c. 1600 BCE, Chalcolithic c. 1400-900 BCE, Iron Age c. 900-800 BCE, C14 pushing the earliest level to 2300 BCE. 'adzes for wood working gives the positive indication that Golbai was a boat-building centre.')
2. Eleanor Kingwell-Banham, Emma Karoune, Rabindra Kumar Mohanty, Dorian Q. Fuller. *Archaeobotanical Investigations into Golbai Sasan and Gopalpur, Two Neolithic-Chalcolithic Settlements of Odisha*. in Ancient Asia 9. 2018a , pp. 1-3 (A large stratified mound in the coastal lowlands near Chilika; earliest levels Neolithic, often dated c. 4500-3200 BP. 'The latest levels have been dated to the Iron Age (c.2500 BP-1500 BP).' Macro-remains and phytoliths give rice, pulses and millets, with new AMS radiocarbon dates.)
Jaugada

Jaugada is a ruined fort in south Odisha with Ashoka's orders carved on a big granite rock. Old pots, tiles and coins lie all over the ground inside its earth wall.
Strongly Supported Archaeology
Sources: [The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09), 1908, vol. XIV, pp. 72-73, 'Jaugada']; [Patra, n.d., p. 109]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), pp. 28-29]
1. *The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09)*. 1908. public domain , vol. XIV, pp. 72-73, 'Jaugada' ('Ruined fort in Ganjam District, Madras, situated in 19 deg 31' N. and 84 deg 50' E., about 18 miles west of Ganjam town, on the north bank of the Rushikulya ... a huge granite mass, on which are inscribed thirteen edicts of the Buddhist emperor Asoka (about 250 B.C.).')
2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 109 ('At Jaugada ... the excavation has revealed a full-fledged iron-using culture' with plain and painted pottery, knobbed vessels, iron implements and beads of shell, bone, agate, crystal, carnelian and quartz; punch-marked and Puri-Kushana coins; an earthen rampart. Linked by the authors to Palur.)
3. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), pp. 28-29 (Ashoka inscribed at Dhauli rock-edicts I-X and XIII, and 'Besides these general edicts, he also inscribed two edicts, known as the Kalinga edicts, in which he laid down principles for the administration of the newly conquered province'; the Jaugada version is treated alongside the Dhauli one.)
Radhanagar

Radhanagar is an old town in Jajpur district ringed by a huge mud wall. Diggers found coins, beads and pottery that had come from far away.
Strongly Supported Archaeology
Sources: [Patnaik, 2014b, pp. 88-94]; [Patra, n.d., p. 110]
1. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Kankia-Radhanagar: An Early Historical Buddhist Settlement*. in Odisha Review. 2014b , pp. 88-94 (p. 88: 'Kankia (Lat: 20 deg 41' Long: 86 deg 11') locally known as Radhanagar', on the right bank of the Kelua, 30 km from the present shore; excavated 2010-13; occupied 4th-3rd c. BCE to 4th-5th c. CE, then sporadically 7th-8th to 13th-14th c. CE. p. 89: c. 902,500 sq m inside a mud fortification.)
2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 110 (Radhanagara is named with Sisupalagarh and Manikpatna as the Orissan find-spots of rouletted ware, alongside Chandraketugarh and Tamluk in Bengal, Salihundam and Dharanikota in Andhra, Kaveripatnam, Uraiyur and Arikamedu in Tamil Nadu, and sites in Java, Bali, Vietnam and Sri Lanka.)
Ratnagiri, Lalitgiri and Udayagiri Buddhist complex

Three hills in Jajpur district hold the ruins of large Buddhist monasteries. Monks lived, studied and kept relics here for well over a thousand years.
Strongly Supported Archaeology
Sources: [Pradhan, 2014, p. 109]; [Patra, n.d., pp. 111, 116]; [Patnaik, 2014b, p. 88]
1. Atul Chandra Pradhan. *Situating Viraja Kshetra and Its Environs in the Odishan Historiography*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 109 (Lalitagiri, 'whose cultural sequence extends from 3rd century B.C. to 1200 A.D.'; a four-layer relic casket of khondalite, steatite, silver and gold. 'Sri Ratnagiri Mahavihariya Arya Bhikshu Sangha flourished from 5th century A.D. to 13th century A.D. on the Ratnagiri hillock (Lat. 20 deg 38' N)'.)
2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 111, 116 (Gives Lalitgiri 20 deg 35' N / 86 deg 15' E, Udayagiri 20 deg 38' 45" N / 86 deg 16' 25" E, Ratnagiri 20 deg 38' N / 86 deg 20' E; the nested Lalitgiri caskets are 'a feature alien in Orissa but common in China'; an Astamahabhaya Tara, who protects sailors from shipwreck, came from Ratnagiri.)
3. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Kankia-Radhanagar: An Early Historical Buddhist Settlement*. in Odisha Review. 2014b , p. 88 ('At a distance of 20 to 30 kms north-east of Kankia also have large Buddhist sites like Ratnagiri, Udayagiri, and Lalitgiri which all are excavated by Archaeological Survey of India in the recent past.')
Salihundam

Salihundam is a hill covered in old Buddhist buildings, beside the Vamsadhara river in Andhra Pradesh. Monks lived there for a thousand years, and diggers found five monasteries, stupas and pottery that had travelled from far away.
Strongly Supported Archaeology
Sources: [Subrahmanyam, 1964, pp. 2-3, 8-9, 29-30]; [Patra, n.d., p. 110]
1. R. Subrahmanyam. *Salihundam: A Buddhist Site in Andhra Pradesh*. Hyderabad: Government of Andhra Pradesh. 1964. public domain , pp. 2-3, 8-9, 29-30 (p.3: '18 13' North by 84' 15' East', four miles from Kalingapatnam, 'now a defunct sea-port town'. p.9: three phases, Early (2nd-3rd c. BC-1st c. AD), Middle (1st-3rd/4th c. AD), Late (4th/5th-7th/8th c. AD). pp.29-30: 'five monasteries with kitchens and dining halls' opened.)
2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 110 (Salihundam listed with Dharanikota (Andhra), Chandraketugarh and Tamluk (Bengal), and Sisupalgarh, Manikpatna and Radhanagara (Odisha) as a find-spot of the same rouletted ware distribution, read as evidence of a shared Bay of Bengal trading network.)

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