Trade Routes

All routes

• Dhauli to Jaugada

  Ashoka had his officers carve the very same orders on rocks at Dhauli and at Jaugada. The two towns ran his new province of Kalinga together, so people must have travelled between them.

  Earliest: Mauryan Kalinga

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Hultzsch, 1925, Hultzsch, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum I (1925), pp. xiii-xv, xxxvii-xxxviii]; [Kulke, 1998, 3rd edn (Routledge, 1998), pp. 63-64]

  1. *Separate Rock Edicts of Ashoka at Dhauli and Jaugada*. ed. Eugen Hultzsch. 1925. public domain , Hultzsch, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum I (1925), pp. xiii-xv, xxxvii-xxxviii (Both sites carry the same two Separate Rock Edicts, addressed respectively to the Mahamatras of Tosali (Dhauli) and of Samapa (Jaugada); Hultzsch treats the two as the administrative centres of one Mauryan province, Kalinga.)
  2. Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermund. *A History of India*. Routledge. 1998 , 3rd edn (Routledge, 1998), pp. 63-64 (Describes the edicts at Dhauli and Jaugada together, with the governor seated at Tosali - both sites presented as seats of one Mauryan provincial administration.)

• Jaugada to Palur

  Jaugada was a walled town up the Rushikulya river with Ashoka's orders carved on a rock. Scholars think its harbour was Palur, down at the river mouth.

  Earliest: Mauryan Kalinga

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Patra, n.d., pp. 109, 113]; [The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09), 1908, vol. XIV, pp. 72-73, 'Jaugada']; [Patra, 2014, pp. 121-122]

  1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 109, 113 (p. 113: 'The very location of the Asokan Edicts at Jaugarh, a place far away from the actual scene of the war i.e. Dhauli is an indication of its association with the port of Palur, a well known ancient port of Kalinga.' p. 109: Palur, near the Rushikulya, was a port of international repute.)
  2. *The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09)*. 1908. public domain , vol. XIV, pp. 72-73, 'Jaugada' ('Ruined fort in Ganjam District, Madras, situated in 19 deg 31' N. and 84 deg 50' E., about 18 miles west of Ganjam town, on the north bank of the Rushikulya', carrying thirteen edicts of Ashoka on a granite mass.)
  3. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 121-122 (Palur is placed 'just above the mouth of Rushikulya'. Przyluski derived Palura from Dravidian words meaning 'tooth city' and linked the name to elephant tusks, 'probably one of the important items of export'; Kongoda bred elephants of good quality.)

• Chilika coast to Arikamedu

  Arikamedu near Pondicherry traded with the Roman world. Broken jars and the same patterned pottery turn up at Odisha's ports as well.

  Earliest: Kharavela and the Mahameghavahanas

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patra, n.d., pp. 110-111]; [Patnaik, 2014a, p. 103]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint pp. 12-16, section 'Arikamedu']

  1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 110-111 (p. 111: 'The rouletted wares of Manikpatna have much similarity with those of Sisupalagarh and Arikamedu.' p. 110: the same ware from Kaveripatnam, Uraiyur and Arikamedu is grouped with the Odishan finds as one Roman trade network along the east coast.)
  2. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , p. 103 ('the land routes extended from Taxila to Kaveripattinam in the south and Tamluk in the east up to Broach in the west'; Tosali, Kalingapatnam, Tamralipti and Pithunda were 'all in the trade circuit'.)
  3. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint pp. 12-16, section 'Arikamedu' ('Arikamedu (11 deg 53' N; 79 deg 48' E), a well-known Indo-Roman trading station, is identified with "Pouduke" of the Periplus Maris Erythraei and Ptolemy.' Journal pagination not verified.)

• Sisupalgarh to Manikapatna

  Sisupalgarh was a huge walled city a little way inland, and Manikapatna was a port on Chilika lake not far away. The very same kind of patterned pottery has been found in both places.

  Earliest: Kharavela and the Mahameghavahanas

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patra, n.d., p. 110]; [Patra, 2014, p. 118]

  1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 110 (Rouletted ware from Sisupalagarh, Manikpatna and Radhanagara in Orissa is listed together with the same ware from sites across the Bay of Bengal, read by the authors as evidence of one shared trade network.)
  2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 118 ('people from different parts used to come by land and river route to the nearest port, then made a coastal voyage to different big ports' - the general model of inland centres feeding the nearest port.)

• Udayagiri-Khandagiri to Pithunda

  King Kharavela's own carved message says he destroyed a market town called Pithunda. His army must have marched there from his capital, near the Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves.

  Earliest: Kharavela and the Mahameghavahanas

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Jayaswal, 1930, Jayaswal & Banerji, Epigraphia Indica XX (1929-30), line 11, translation p. 88]; [Patra, n.d., p. 113]; [Patra, 2014, p. 123]

  1. *Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela, Udayagiri*. ed. K. P. Jayaswal, R. D. Banerji. 1930. public domain , Jayaswal & Banerji, Epigraphia Indica XX (1929-30), line 11, translation p. 88 ('And the market-town (?) Pithumda founded by the Ava King he ploughs down with a plough of asses' - Kharavela's own record of destroying Pithunda in his eleventh regnal year.)
  2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 113 ('The very location of the Asokan Edicts at Jaugarh, a place far away from the actual scene of the war i.e. Dhauli is an indication of its association with the port of Palur' - the authors read Kharavela's campaign as directed down this same southern coastal corridor towards Pithunda.)
  3. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 123 (Pithunda 'could be located somewhere near Chicacole region of modern Andhra Pradesh', south of Palur along the same coast.)

• Barua to Kalingapatnam

  Barua and Kalingapatnam both sat where small rivers meet the sea. Kalingapatnam was the bigger of the two, and its name means 'town of the Kalinga people'.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Patra, 2014, pp. 118, 123]

  1. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 118, 123 (p. 118 sets out the general model of short coastal hops. Barua ('now in Andhra Pradesh, 6 km from Sompeta', p. 123) and Kalingapatnam, at the Vamsadhara mouth, are discussed together as neighbouring ancient ports on the same stretch of coast.)

• Chilika coast to Sri Lanka

  Ships left the Chilika coast for Sri Lanka. A Chinese monk wrote that on a still night you could see a light shining over the island from here.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Xuanzang, 7th century CE, Beal 1884, vol. II, pp. 205-206]; [Patra, 2014, p. 120]; [Patra, n.d., pp. 112, 114]; [Ardika, 1991, pp. 225-226]

  1. Xuanzang. *Record of the Western Regions (Da Tang Xiyu Ji)*. 7th century CE. public domain , Beal 1884, vol. II, pp. 205-206 (p. 205, Charitra (Che-li-ta-lo) 'on the borders of the ocean ... Here it is merchants depart for distant countries'. p. 206: 'Going south 20,000 li or so is the country of Simhala (Seng-kia-lo). In the still night ... we see the surmounting precious stone of the tooth-stupa of Buddha.')
  2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 120 ('The discovery of Shahasamalla's coin from Manikpatna in Odisha, Polonaruva in Sri Lanka and Kotchina in Indonesia testify to a maritime network linking coastal Odisha, Sri Lanka and Sumatra.' Manikpatna is Patra's preferred identification of Che-li-ta-lo.)
  3. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 112, 114 (p. 114: 'in ancient times prince Dantakumara and princess Hemamala had sailed to Ceylon with the Buddha's tooth relic from the port of Dantapura/Palur'. p. 112: excavation at Anuradhapura shows Indian cultural elements reaching Sri Lanka before Ashoka.)
  4. I. Wayan Ardika, Peter Bellwood. *Sembiran: the beginnings of Indian contact with Bali*. in Antiquity 65. 1991 , pp. 225-226 (Rouletted Ware from Anuradhapura was analysed alongside the Sembiran and Arikamedu material, placing the Sri Lankan capital inside the same Bay of Bengal ceramic network as Kalinga's ports.)

• Manikapatna to Tamralipti

  A historian called Tamralipti, at the top of the bay, 'the first and foremost' of ancient Odisha's ports. The same patterned pottery lies at both ends of this coast, so boats seem to have worked between them.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Patra, 2014, pp. 118-119]; [Patra, n.d., p. 110]; [Patnaik, 2014a, p. 103]

  1. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 118-119 (p. 118: 'people from different parts used to come by land and river route to the nearest port, then made a coastal voyage to different big ports, and thence made voyage to different foreign countries'. Tamralipti is 'the first and foremost' of the ports treated.)
  2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 110 (Rouletted ware from Sisupalagarh, Manikpatna and Radhanagara in Orissa is listed together with the same ware from Chandraketugarh and Tamluk in West Bengal, which the authors read as one Roman-period trade network.)
  3. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , p. 103 ('the land routes extended from Taxila to Kaveripattinam in the south and Tamluk in the east up to Broach in the west'; Tosali, Kalingapatnam, Tamralipti and Pithunda are named as the Kalinga centres 'which were all in the trade circuit'.)

• Palur to Bali

  Palur was where ships stopped following the coast and turned into open sea for Southeast Asia. Indian pots of exactly the same kind lie buried at Sembiran in Bali.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patra, n.d., pp. 109-110]; [Ardika, 1991, pp. 221-232]; [Patra, 2014, p. 121]; [Xuanzang, 7th century CE, Beal 1884, vol. II, p. 205 n. 55]; [Nanda, 2019, pp. 41-42, 44]

  1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 109-110 (Palur was a departure port on the India-Southeast Asia route; the spread of rouletted ware suggests a trade link from the eastern coast to Southeast Asia.)
  2. I. Wayan Ardika, Peter Bellwood. *Sembiran: the beginnings of Indian contact with Bali*. in Antiquity 65. 1991 , pp. 221-232 (Excavations at Sembiran in Tejakula District, north-east Bali, in 1987 and 1989 found Indian Rouletted Ware, a sherd of Arikamedu type 10 and a body sherd carrying a graffito identified as Kharoshthi, in deposits dated about AD 1-200.)
  3. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 121 (Ptolemy's apheterion, a point of departure 'immediately to the south of Paloura (Palur), where ships bound for Khryse (the Malaya Peninsula) ceased to follow the littoral and entered the high seas'. Gerini placed it at Gopalpur; Patra prefers Mansurkota nearby.)
  4. Xuanzang. *Record of the Western Regions (Da Tang Xiyu Ji)*. 7th century CE. public domain , Beal 1884, vol. II, p. 205 n. 55 (Beal glosses Charitra as Chinese Fa-hing, 'city of departure', and equates it with 'Ptolemy's to apheterion ton eis ten Chrysen empleonton (lib. vii. c. 1, 15)' - the point where ships left the coast for the Golden Land.)
  5. R. K. Nanda. *Kalinga Bali Yatra and the Maritime Trade of Odisha*. in Odisha Review. Bhubaneswar: Information and Public Relations Department, Government of Odisha. 2019 , pp. 41-42, 44 (p. 41: Baliyatra or 'Boita Bandana Yatra' at Cuttack marks the day Sadhaba mariners sailed for Bali, Java, Sumatra, Borneo and Ceylon on Kartika Purnima. p. 44, NOT p. 43 as cited before: Sembiran's rouletted ware is grouped with Sisupalgarh, Manikpatna and Tamluk.)

• Palur to Sonapur

  Palur and Sonapur were both old ports on the south Odisha coast, a short sail apart. Ships likely worked their way down the coast from one to the next.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Patra, 2014, pp. 118, 121-122]

  1. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 118, 121-122 (p. 118 sets out the general model of short coastal hops between neighbouring ports. Palur (p. 121) and Sonapur (pp. 121-122, 'where river Bahuda enters into the Bay of Bengal ... 20 km away from Berhampur') are treated in sequence as ports of ancient Odisha along the same stretch of coast.)

• Sonapur to Barua

  Sonapur and Barua were both small ports further south along the same old coast. A Greek geographer wrote about places like these long ago.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Patra, 2014, pp. 118, 121-123]

  1. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 118, 121-123 (p. 118 sets out the general model of short coastal hops. Sonapur (pp. 121-122) and Barua ('Barua or Barwah ... from the accounts of Ptolemy ... one of the important trade centres', p. 123) are treated as neighbouring ports on the same ancient coast.)

• Tamralipti to Mahatittha

  A 5th-century Buddhist book says ships often sailed between Tamralipti and Mahatittha, a great port in Sri Lanka. Both were busy stops for monks and merchants crossing the Bay of Bengal.

  Earliest: Gupta centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 24]

  1. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 24 (The 5th-century Samantapasadika, Buddhaghosa's commentary, 'refers to ships often travelling between Tamralipti and Mahatittha.')

• Guangzhou to Palembang

  The Chinese monk Yijing sailed from the port of Guangzhou to Palembang on his way to study in India. He wrote down his own journey, stop by stop.

  Earliest: Post-Gupta centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 27]

  1. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 27 ('Yi-Jing, who took the maritime route to India, left the Guang-Zhou region in China and visited Fo-che, Mo-lo-yu and Sumatra ...' Dayalan cites Chavannes's 1894 translation of Yijing's account.)

• Kedah to Tamralipti

  From Kedah, Yijing's ship sailed past the Nicobar Islands and on to Tamralipti, the great port at the top of the Bay of Bengal. He later sailed the same route home again.

  Earliest: Post-Gupta centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 27]

  1. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 27 ('Then, he proceeded east and reached the Nicobar Islands ... Proceeding northwest from these islands, Yi-Jing reached Tamralipti.' Returning to China 'he took the same route, landing again at Kie-tcha and Fo-che.' Dayalan cites Chavannes's 1894 translation of Yijing's account.)

• Palembang to Kedah

  After Palembang, the monk Yijing's ship carried him on to Kedah on the Malay Peninsula. From there he waited for the winds to carry him further west.

  Earliest: Post-Gupta centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 27]

  1. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 27 ('... visited Fo-che, Mo-lo-yu and Sumatra ... proceeded northwest to Kie-tcha.' Dayalan cites Chavannes's 1894 translation of Yijing's account; Kie-tcha is read as Kedah.)

• Manikapatna to Khalkatapatna

  Manikapatna and Khalkatapatna were both busy ports on the Odisha coast about 800 years ago. Chinese plates and coins have turned up at both places.

  Earliest: Somavamshi

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patra, 2014, pp. 119-120]; [Patnaik, 2014a, p. 105]

  1. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 119-120 (Both sites are described with Chinese ceramics: Khalkatapatna's excavation (pp. 119-120) yielded Chinese celadon and porcelain with blue floral design, c. 12th-14th century CE; Manikapatna (p. 120) yielded rouletted ware, amphora and, in its later phase, Chinese wares.)
  2. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , p. 105 (Khalkatapatna excavation finds include 'Chinese Celadonware, Chinese porcelain'; Manikapatna's finds list (pp. 104-105) likewise includes Chinese celadon, porcelain and a Chinese coin.)

• Cuttack to Sambalpur along the Mahanadi

  Boats went far up the Mahanadi river from the coast to Sambalpur. They carried salt, spices and pots inland, and came back loaded with diamonds, iron, silk and grain.

  Earliest: Mughal and Maratha rule

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, pp. 194, 218]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. ii, Appendix III, p. 74]; [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., vol. XXII, pp. 12-13 (Sambalpur District)]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , pp. 194, 218 ('Formerly salt was an important article of export by way of the great road leading along the Mahanadi to Sembelpur and Berar ... more than three lacs of maunds being exported annually.')
  2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. ii, Appendix III, p. 74 (Mahanadi river towns 'carry salt, spices, cocoa-nuts, and brass utensils up to Sambalpur ... bringing thence, in exchange, cotton, wheat, oil-seeds, clarified butter, oil, molasses, iron, turmeric, tasar cloth, rice.')
  3. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , vol. XXII, pp. 12-13 (Sambalpur District) (Diamonds worked at Hirakud 'when Sambalpur was under native rule'; salt 'now brought by rail instead of river as formerly' - implying the river itself carried it before the railway.)

• Manikapatna to Puri

  An English sailing book of 1679 gave the course from Manikapatna to Puri. Captains steered by the tall temple of Jagannath, which they could see far out at sea.

  Earliest: Mughal and Maratha rule

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Patnaik, 2014a, p. 107]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), pp. 15, 196]

  1. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , p. 107 (Kempthorn (1679), folio 136-68: 'from Maneclapatam to Jauggernaut course is East-North East and distance is 10 miles.' The ship logs of Capt. Talbot (1680), Hide (1681) and Lake (1683) name Jaggernaut and Maneclapatam as landmarks for approaching the Odisha coast.)
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), pp. 15, 196 (p. 15: 'The only port in the district is Puri, and this is nothing but an unprotected roadstead.' p. 196: 'The sea along the coast is fairly deep, and vessels can go close to the shore', but heavy surf blocks landing for most of the year.)

• Pipli to Balasore

  Pipli was once the busiest port on the Orissa coast. When sand blocked its river, traders and English merchants moved their business down the coast to Balasore instead.

  Earliest: Mughal and Maratha rule

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Hunter, 1872, vol. ii, pp. 37-40]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 9, 204]

  1. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. ii, pp. 37-40 (p. 37: about 1514 the Portuguese founded a colony at 'Pippli, now a ruined and silt-locked village ... but then a fine harbour.' p. 40: silting of the Subarnarekha moved the Pippli factory to Balasore.)
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 9, 204 (p. 204: 'Pipli was once the most important port on the Orissa coast ... By the beginning of the 18th century the silting up of its mouth had ruined Pipli.' p. 9 ties this decline to Balasore's later rise as 'the only port of which Orissa could boast.')

• Balasore to Calcutta

  A 19th-century report said Balasore was the only sea port Orissa could boast of at that time. Ships took rice and fine cloth north to Calcutta.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), p. 144]; [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. ii, pp. 40, 247]

  1. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), p. 144 ('At the commencement of the 19th century Balasore was the only port of which Orissa could boast.' Its trading partners are 'Calcutta, the coast ports from Bombay on the west to Arakan on the east, and foreign ports'. Trade was 'declining owing to the advent of the railway'.)
  2. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 ('A considerable exportation of rice takes place from the several small ports along the coast to Calcutta.' 'Piece goods' heads the list of exports liable to duty.)
  3. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. ii, pp. 40, 247 (Cited for the cargo: p. 40, the Orissa factors 'bought up at the lowest prices for ready money the fine muslins of Cattack'; p. 247, 'the Cattack and Balasor muslins formed an important item in the yearly Investments'.)

• Balugaon to Puri across Chilika

  Balugaon was a fishing and grain town on the edge of Chilika lake. Boats and, later, trains carried its fish and grain on towards Puri and beyond.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley & Mansfield, Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteers: Puri (1929), pp. 204-205, 212-213]

  1. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley & Mansfield, Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteers: Puri (1929), pp. 204-205, 212-213 ('From Balugaon and Kalupara Ghat the greater part of the traffic is the export of fish and grain'; the District Fishery Officer's headquarters were 'shifted to Balugaon on the Chilka lake.')

• Chandbali to Calcutta by sea

  Steamers sailed from the river port of Chandbali up the coast to Calcutta. Odisha's own trade slowly drained away to that much bigger port.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, p. 92]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 144-145]

  1. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, p. 92 ('Steamers carrying passengers and goods ply three times a week from Cuttack city to Chandbali port by canal, and from Chandbali to Calcutta by sea.' The chief imports of Cuttack district come from Calcutta.)
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 144-145 ('The ports which trade with Chandbali and Balasore are Calcutta, the coast ports from Bombay on the west to Arakan on the east, and foreign ports, such as the Maldive islands, Ceylon, and occasionally Mauritius.')

• Cuttack to Chandbali by canal

  Steamers left Cuttack and went down a canal to the port of Chandbali. Boats had carried salt and grain along the Mahanadi here for far longer than that.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 92, 98]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 10, 197]; [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]

  1. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 92, 98 (p. 92: 'Steamers carrying passengers and goods ply three times a week from Cuttack city to Chandbali port by canal, and from Chandbali to Calcutta by sea.' p. 98: Cuttack is 'connected by canal with Chandbali and False Point'.)
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 10, 197 (p. 10: 'Chandbali, 20 miles from the mouth, is the most important port in Orissa.' p. 197: Chandbali stands on the left bank of the Baitarani, 20 miles from its mouth; land was leased to the India General Steam Navigation Company in 1877.)
  3. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 (Cited for the cargo, not for the canal: 'formerly salt was an important article of export by way of the great road leading along the Mahanadi to Sembelpur and Berar ... more than three lacs of maunds being exported annually.')

• Cuttack to False Point by canal

  False Point was the spot where the Mahanadi river reached the open sea. A canal linked it to Cuttack, so goods could travel between the inland city and ocean-going ships.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 92, 98]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley & Cousins, Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteers: Cuttack, 2nd edn (1933), pp. 7-8]

  1. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 92, 98 (p. 92: 'the chief trade centres are Cuttack city, False Point port, and Chandbali'; p. 98: Cuttack City is 'connected by canal with Chandbali and False Point.')
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley & Cousins, Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteers: Cuttack, 2nd edn (1933), pp. 7-8 (p. 7: 'False Point ... constitutes the only anchorage on the coast.' p. 8: a silting, exposed anchorage at the Mahanadi mouth - the sea end of the same canal system the Imperial Gazetteer names.)

• Dhamra to Chandbali

  Dhamra was the older port on this river mouth, made official in 1858. Chandbali grew up a little further inland and took over most of Dhamra's trade.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Hunter, 1872, vol. ii, Appendix IV, pp. 107-108]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), p. 8]

  1. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. ii, Appendix IV, pp. 107-108 (The Dhamra estuary 'was declared a port by Government Notification, No. 877, of the 18th May 1858 ... As a port for native shippers, it ranks next to that of Balasor among the Orissa harbours.')
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), p. 8 ('The Dhamra ... is a fine estuary formed by the junction of the Brahmani and Baitarani rivers.' 'Chandbali ... absorbed the trade of the old port of Dhamra.')

• Ganjam to Puri through Chilika

  Boats from Ganjam came north through a canal and across Chilika lake. They brought bamboo and carried away the spare rice of the southern villages.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), p. 196]; [Patnaik, 2014a, pp. 106, 108]

  1. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), p. 196 (Ganjam traders used the Ganjam canal and Chilika lake for boat traffic all year, bringing bamboo and taking away surplus rice.)
  2. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , pp. 106, 108 (p. 106: the Brahmanda Purana treats Chilika as a trade route, and Kushana coins at Gurubai on the strip between the lake and the sea 'suggests a trade route in the area'. p. 108: in 1810 pilgrims from the south came by road along the strip 'or in few cases by boats across the Chilika Lake'.)

• Gopalpur to Rangoon

  From the open beach at Gopalpur, steamers crossed the Bay of Bengal to Burma. Thousands of people sailed out each year to work, and most came home again.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09), 1908, vol. XII, pp. 152, 329-330; vol. XXI, pp. 213-214]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), p. 144]

  1. *The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09)*. 1908. public domain , vol. XII, pp. 152, 329-330; vol. XXI, pp. 213-214 (vol. XII pp. 329-330: Gopalpur, 'an open roadstead with no shelter whatever', a call for British India Steam Navigation coasting steamers; in 1903-4, 7,400 passengers went to and 8,300 returned from Burma. p. 152: Ganjam port exports go chiefly to Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Rangoon and Moulmein.)
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), p. 144 (Chandbali and Balasore traded with 'the coast ports from Bombay on the west to Arakan on the east', which places the Burmese coast inside the same shipping circuit. Arakan, not Rangoon, is the port named.)

• The Orissa Trunk Road

  A great road was cut north from Puri through Cuttack to Balasore. Crowds of pilgrims walked it to see Jagannath, and carts carried paddy and salt.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 142, 146-147, 193]; [Patnaik, 2014a, p. 107]

  1. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 142, 146-147, 193 (p. 146: 'The principal road is the Orissa Trunk Road, which runs for a length of 95 miles from end to end of the district', linking Midnapore and Calcutta on the north 'with Cuttack, Puri and Ganjam on the south'; built by Captain Sackville 1812-1820. p. 193: 'also called the Jagannath road'.)
  2. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , p. 107 (Toynbee: 'The traffic from south to Cuttack passed along the eastern shore of the Chillika lake, between it and the sea, to Puri and thence followed exactly the line of the present great Jagannath road', and northwards from Puri through Cuttack and Jajpur to Bhadrak.)