Ancient Ports

All ports

• Anuradhapura

  Anuradhapura was the old capital city of Sri Lanka. Ships from Kalinga's ports reached the island, and a Sri Lankan coin turned up at Manikapatna.

  Earliest: Mauryan Kalinga

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patra, n.d., pp. 112, 114]; [Patra, 2014, p. 120]; [Ardika, 1991, pp. 225-226]

  1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 112, 114 (p. 112: 'An archaeological excavation at Anuradhapura in Ceylon proves the introduction of Indian cultural elements including Buddhism into Sri Lanka even before the days of Asoka.' p. 114: the tradition of Dantakumara and Hemamala sailing to Ceylon with the tooth relic from Dantapura/Palur.)
  2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 120 ('The discovery of Shahasamalla's coin from Manikpatna in Odisha, Polonaruva in Sri Lanka and Kotchina in Indonesia testify to a maritime network linking coastal Odisha, Sri Lanka and Sumatra.' Also Xuanzang on seeing the light over the Buddha's tooth relic in Sri Lanka from Che-li-ta-lo.)
  3. I. Wayan Ardika, Peter Bellwood. *Sembiran: the beginnings of Indian contact with Bali*. in Antiquity 65. 1991 , pp. 225-226 (Rouletted Ware sherds from Anuradhapura were analysed alongside those from Sembiran (Bali) and Arikamedu; Arikamedu type-10 pottery is also reported from Anuradhapura, placing the Sri Lankan capital inside the same Bay of Bengal ceramic network as Kalinga's ports.)

• Kalingapatnam

  Kalingapatnam sits where the Vamsadhara river meets the sea. Its name means the town of the Kalinga people, and ships used it for a very long time.

  Earliest: Mauryan Kalinga

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09), 1908, vol. IX, pp. 291-292, 'Calingapatam']; [Patra, 2014, pp. 122-123]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 20, section 'Kalingapatnam']; [Patra, n.d., p. 107]

  1. *The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09)*. 1908. public domain , vol. IX, pp. 291-292, 'Calingapatam' ('Port in the Chicacole taluk of Ganjam District, Madras, situated in 18 deg 20' N. and 84 deg 8' E., at the mouth of the Vamsadhara river.' Ruins of many mosques; small gold coins of great age found on the old city site. Open roadstead with a lighthouse; exports 6 lakhs in 1903-4.)
  2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 122-123 (At the Vamsadhara mouth, Srikakulam district. An excavation in 1928 found pottery, large brick walls and glazed tiles showing a fortified city from c. 2nd century BCE to early medieval times; ASI work of 1977-79 in the stupa mound dated settlement to 300 BCE. Roman coins from the site.)
  3. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 20, section 'Kalingapatnam' ('Kalingapatnam (18 deg 19' N; 84 deg 06' E), an ancient port city as well as a notable Buddhist centre ... a flourishing port under the Ganga rulers, and during ancient times, vessels from here sailed to Sri Lanka, Java, Sumatra, Malaysia and other countries.' Journal pagination not verified.)
  4. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 107 (Lists Kalingapatnam among the ports of ancient Orissa brought to light by archaeological excavation.)

• Maliwan

  Maliwan is a very old port town in southern Myanmar, next to a river close to the sea. Diggers there found beads and pottery that had travelled all the way from India.

  Earliest: Mauryan Kalinga

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Bellina, 2018, Antiquity 92(366), e6 (2018), pp. 3, 5]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 23]

  1. Berenice Bellina, Maung Sun Win, Kalayar Myat Myat Htwe, Htet Myat Thu, Cristina Castillo, Camille Colonna, Laure Dussubieux, Aude Favereau, Emiri Miyama, Baptiste Pradier, Thomas Oliver Pryce, Sachipan Srikanlaya, Elisabeth Triviere. *Myanmar's earliest Maritime Silk Road port-settlements revealed*. in Antiquity 92. 2018 , Antiquity 92(366), e6 (2018), pp. 3, 5 (p. 3: 'Maliwan is a large settlement ... on gently sloping hills ... west of a tributary of the Kraburi River ... radiocarbon dates ... suggest occupation from the fourth to second centuries BC.' p. 5: 'Aw Gyi is situated approximately 15km west of Maliwan, facing the Bay of Bengal.')
  2. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 23 ('Maliwan and Aw Gyi, the notable ancient port cities in southern Myanmar, have yielded lots of materials of Indian origin such as carnelian beads, glass beads ... fine grey pottery, terracotta figurines of Maurya-Sunga style.')

• Arikamedu

  Arikamedu is an old trading village on a river near Pondicherry. The same shiny patterned pottery turns up here and at Kalinga's ports.

  Earliest: Kharavela and the Mahameghavahanas

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Dayalan, 2019, offprint pp. 12-16, section 'Arikamedu']; [Patra, n.d., pp. 110-111]

  1. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint pp. 12-16, section 'Arikamedu' ('Arikamedu (11 deg 53' N; 79 deg 48' E), a well-known Indo-Roman trading station, is identified with "Pouduke" of the Periplus Maris Erythraei and Ptolemy. It is about 6 km from Pondicherry, situated on the bank of the Ariyankuppam River.' Journal pagination not verified.)
  2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 110-111 (p. 111: 'The rouletted wares of Manikpatna have much similarity with those of Sisupalagarh and Arikamedu.' p. 110: rouletted ware from Sisupalagarh, Manikpatna and Radhanagara is grouped with finds from Kaveripatnam, Uraiyur and Arikamedu.)

• Kaveripattinam

  Kaveripattinam was a great port where the Kaveri river meets the sea. Diggers found a brick and timber wharf where boats were tied up.

  Earliest: Kharavela and the Mahameghavahanas

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Dayalan, 2019, offprint pp. 10-12, section 'Kaveripumpattinam']; [Patra, n.d., p. 110]; [Patnaik, 2014a, pp. 103, 108]

  1. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint pp. 10-12, section 'Kaveripumpattinam' ('Kaveripumpattinam (10 deg 46' N; 79 deg 51' E) in the district of Tanjavur, Tamil Nadu.' At Kilaiyur a massive brick platform, read as a wharf where boats could be moored to wooden posts, was excavated; radiocarbon dates on the associated wood average about 250 BCE. Journal pagination not verified.)
  2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 110 (Rouletted ware from Sisupalagarh, Manikpatna and Radhanagara in Orissa is listed with the same ware from Kaveripatnam, Uraiyur and Arikamedu, which the authors read as evidence of a shared Roman-period trade network along the east coast.)
  3. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , pp. 103, 108 (p. 103: in the early historical period 'the land routes extended from Taxila to Kaveripattinam in the south and Tamluk in the east up to Broach in the west', with Tosali, Kalingapatnam, Tamralipti and Pithunda among the Kalinga centres in the same trade circuit.)

• Mahatittha (Mantai)

  Mahatittha was ancient Sri Lanka's biggest sea port, where island ships met traders from India. Diggers found rice, spices and pots from far away lands buried there.

  Earliest: Kharavela and the Mahameghavahanas

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Kingwell-Banham, 2018b, Antiquity 92(366), 2018, pp. 1552-1553]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint pp. 17, 24]

  1. Eleanor Kingwell-Banham, Wijerathne Bohingamuwa, Nimal Perera, Gamini Adikari, Alison Crowther, Dorian Q. Fuller, Nicole Boivin. *Spice and rice: pepper, cloves and everyday cereal foods at the ancient port of Mantai, Sri Lanka*. in Antiquity 92. 2018b , Antiquity 92(366), 2018, pp. 1552-1553 ('Mantai thus drew trade and served as the main seaport of the Anuradhapura kingdom for nearly two millennia.' Its 'ideal locale at a key geographic point of transhipment meant that Mantai came to have a large, urban and multicultural population.')
  2. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint pp. 17, 24 (p. 24: the 5th-century Samantapasadika 'refers to ships often travelling between Tamralipti and Mahatittha.' p. 17: beads from Ridiyagama and Mantai in Sri Lanka, alongside sites in Thailand, Vietnam and Malaysia, 'appear to have been imported from India.')

• Manikapatna

  Manikapatna is an old port on the shore of Chilika lake. People digging there found coins and broken pots from China, Sri Lanka and lands far to the west.

  Earliest: Kharavela and the Mahameghavahanas

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Tripati, 2021, pp. 1211-1212]; [Patra, n.d., pp. 111-112]; [Patnaik, 2014a, pp. 104-105]; [Tripati, 2022, Introduction; Sci. Rep. 12:13559]; [Patra, 2014, p. 120]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 23, section 'Manikapatna']

  1. Sila Tripati. *Indo-Arabian stone anchor of Manikapatna, Odisha, east coast of India: an indicator of maritime contacts of Odisha*. in Current Science 120. 2021 , pp. 1211-1212 (p. 1211: OIMSEAS, Bhubaneswar excavated 1989-1993; site lies on the bank of Chilika Lake in Brahmagiri taluk, Puri district. p. 1212: two periods, 2nd c. BCE to 5th-6th c. CE and 9th to 19th c. CE; Kharoshthi inscription, knobbed and rouletted ware, Puri-Kushan and Chola coins, Yuan/Ming porcelain.)
  2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 111-112 (Finds list: Chinese celadon and porcelain, rouletted pottery and amphora fragments, knobbed ware, Burmese and Siamese pottery, a Ceylonese coin of Sahassamalla, Indonesian terracotta, egg-white Arabian ware, and a Kharoshthi potsherd read as 'Dasatradeva'.)
  3. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , pp. 104-105 (Excavation seasons 1989-90 and 1992-93; site c. 45 km south of Puri; mounds topped by the 13th-c. Bhabakundaleswar temple; period I 2nd c. BCE to 5th-6th c. CE, period II 9th c. to early 19th c. CE; East India Company copper coins, Mughal and Shah Alam coins, a British medal.)
  4. Sila Tripati, Jyotiranjan S. Ray, Rudra Prasad Behera, Prakash Babu, Milan Kumar Mahala, Murali Kocherla, Vijay Khedekar. *Geochemical provenance of an Indo-Arabian stone anchor from Manikapatna highlights the medieval maritime trade of India*. in Scientific Reports 12. 2022 , Introduction; Sci. Rep. 12:13559 (Confirms OIMSEAS 1989-1993 and Deccan College 2010 excavations, same two phases; a stone anchor near the mosque, 2018-19. Also: 'Chinese ceramic sherds ... of the 13th to 14th century CE ... produced in Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces of China' (pers. comm. Ran Zhang).)
  5. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 120 (Prints a coordinate for the site: 'Lat. 19 deg 43' 54" N and Long. 85 deg 33' 14" E', in the northern tip of the Chilika Lake, Brahmagiri tahsil, Puri district. Also the Sahassamalla-coin network linking Manikpatna, Polonnaruva and Kotchina (Sumatra), and Maratuan (Burmese) brown glazed ware.)
  6. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 23, section 'Manikapatna' (Independently gives 19 deg 43' N; 85 deg 34' E, agreeing with Patra 2014 to the arc-minute. Records Abul Fazl (1595-96) on Manikapatna as a large port where salt tax was collected. Journal pagination not verified.)

• Pithunda

  Pithunda was a busy market town by the sea that King Kharavela says he destroyed. Nobody has dug it up, so we do not know exactly where it stood.

  Earliest: Kharavela and the Mahameghavahanas

  ? Hypothetical ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Jayaswal, 1930, Jayaswal & Banerji, Epigraphia Indica XX (1929-30), No. 7, pp. 71-89: translation of line 11 on p. 88, editors' note 34 on p. 85]; [Patra, 2014, p. 123]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 21, section 'Pithunda'; and p. 20, section 'Kalingapatnam']

  1. *Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela, Udayagiri*. ed. K. P. Jayaswal, R. D. Banerji. 1930. public domain , Jayaswal & Banerji, Epigraphia Indica XX (1929-30), No. 7, pp. 71-89: translation of line 11 on p. 88, editors' note 34 on p. 85 (p. 88, line 11: 'And the market-town (?) Pithumda founded by the Ava King he ploughs down with a plough of asses.' Note 34, p. 85: 'According to Ptolemy, a city in the upper part of the Coromandal coast; This city has perhaps to be taken as the capital of the Ava or Avarni.')
  2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 123 (Pithunda in the Hathigumpha inscription (Kharavela's 11th regnal year), Ptolemy's Pityndra midway between the Godavari and Mahanadi mouths, and Pihumda of the Jain Uttaradhyayana Sutra, all equated by Sylvain Levi. 'could be located somewhere near Chicacole region of modern Andhra Pradesh'.)
  3. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 21, section 'Pithunda'; and p. 20, section 'Kalingapatnam' (Repeats Levi's equation and places Pithunda 'somewhere near the Chicacole region (Srikakulam region)'; on p. 20 suggests instead that it 'seems to have been located somewhat close to Kalingapatnam at the mouth of the river Vamsadhara'. Journal pagination not verified.)

• Alagankulam

  Alagankulam is a very old port on the Vaigai river in Tamil Nadu, close to the sea. Diggers found broken Roman jars and real Roman coins buried there.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 6, section 'Alagankulam']

  1. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 6, section 'Alagankulam' ('Alagankulam (09 deg 21' N; 78 deg 58' E) is an ancient seaport ... on the banks of the Vaigai River ... Excavations ... brought to light ... amphorae, a large quantity of rouletted ware sherds, stamped pottery and Roman coins of Vallentine, Theodosius I and Arcadius I.')

• Barua

  Barua was a port the Greek geographer Ptolemy wrote about long ago. It stood where a small river reaches the sea, in what is now Andhra Pradesh.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Patra, 2014, p. 123]

  1. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 123 ('Barua or Barwah ... lies in Lat. 18 deg 51' N and Long. 84 deg 35' E ... 33 miles south of Berhampur ... now in Andhra Pradesh, 6 km from Sompeta.' 'From the accounts of Ptolemy ... the port-town of Barua was one of the important trade centres ... during the ancient period.')

• Palur

  Palur is an old port village near the mouth of the Rushikulya river in south Odisha. People found bits of Chinese and Mediterranean pots there, which shows traders came from far away.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patra, n.d., p. 109]; [Patra, 2014, p. 121]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint pp. 20-21, section 'Palur']; [Sahu, 2026, Times of India, 1 August 2026]

  1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 109 (Prints 'Palur (Lat 19 deg 27' E. and Long 85 deg 11' N.)' with the labels reversed. Exploration by A. Nath (ASI) and K. S. Behera at Palur (Kantigarh) found Chinese celadon, rouletted ware and amphora pieces; K. K. Basa's survey found a possible lighthouse pillar and a stamped boat motif nearby.)
  2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 121 (Gerini: Ptolemy's Paloura = modern Palur, 'at Lat. 19 deg 27' N and Long. 85 deg 11' E, just above the mouth of Rushikulya'. Same page: 'On linguistic grounds, S. Levi identifies Dantapura ... and Dandagula of Pliny with Paloura of Ptolemy', citing Indian Antiquary LV (1926), pp. 98-99.)
  3. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint pp. 20-21, section 'Palur' ('Palur (19 deg 27' N; 85 deg 11' E), situated in the Ganjam district of Odisha, was mentioned as an important port on the eastern coast of India.' Kantigarh explorations yielded Chinese celadon, rouletted ware and Mediterranean amphora. Journal pagination not verified.)
  4. Diana Sahu. *Digging at Palur reveals thriving maritime hub from pre-Mauryan era*. in The Times of India. 2026 , Times of India, 1 August 2026 ('Nine cultural layers ... nearly three metres ... from the pre-Mauryan period through the Early Historic and Early Medieval phases.' NBPW, knobbed and red polished ware; 363 graffiti sherds; beads. A conference report on the 2023-25 dig, not yet published; 'lends strong support' to Palur=Paloura.)

• Sembiran

  Sembiran is a village on the north coast of Bali. Indian pots buried there show that ships from India reached Bali about two thousand years ago.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Ardika, 1991, pp. 221-232, esp. pp. 221-227]; [Patra, n.d., p. 110]

  1. I. Wayan Ardika, Peter Bellwood. *Sembiran: the beginnings of Indian contact with Bali*. in Antiquity 65. 1991 , pp. 221-232, esp. pp. 221-227 (Excavations by Ardika in 1987 and 1989 in Tejakula District, north-east Bali, found Indian Rouletted Ware, a sherd of Arikamedu type 10 and a body sherd carrying a graffito identified as Kharoshthi, in deposits the authors date to about AD 1-200 on combined ceramic and epigraphic grounds.)
  2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 110 (Rouletted ware from Sisupalagarh, Manikpatna and Radhanagara in Orissa is listed together with the same ware 'from Buni complex in North Java, from Sembiran on the north coast of Bali', which the authors read as implying a trade route connecting the east coast of India with Southeast Asia.)

• Sonapur

  Sonapur was an old port where the Bahuda river meets the sea in south Odisha. Ships loaded up on oysters here until sand banks blocked the way in.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Patra, 2014, pp. 121-122]

  1. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 121-122 ('Sonapur ... lies in Lat. 19 deg 6' N and Long. 84 deg 47' E ... where river Bahuda enters into the Bay of Bengal 20 km away from Berhampur.' Sand bars later 'offered obstruction to shipping and the port lost its importance.' Cites Maltby, Ganjam District Manual (1918), p. 34.)

• Tamralipti

  A historian called Tamralipti 'the first and foremost' of ancient Odisha's ports, at the top of the Bay of Bengal. Monks and traders sailed from here to Sri Lanka, Burma and China.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patra, 2014, pp. 118-119]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint pp. 24-25, section 'Tamralipti']; [Patra, n.d., p. 110]

  1. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 118-119 ('Of all the ports of ancient Odisha ... the first and foremost was the port of Tamralipti.' Identified with Tamluk, at the Rupnarayana confluence, 'Lat. 22 deg 17' N and Long. 87 deg 57' E'. Ptolemy's Tamalities; Fa-Hien, Xuanzang and Yijing embarked here for China.)
  2. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint pp. 24-25, section 'Tamralipti' (Independently gives Tamluk at 22 deg 17' N; 87 deg 57' E; the Dudhapani rock inscription of Udayamana (c. 8th century CE) recording Ayodhya merchants frequenting the port; Chinese, Sri Lankan and Southeast Asian potsherds from Tamluk and its neighbouring villages. Journal pagination not verified.)
  3. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 110 (Large quantities of rouletted ware from the ancient port site of Tamralipti; a Ganga fanam found at Tamralipti, taken to show the port lay under Eastern Ganga suzerainty; Roman gold coins from Bamanghati in Mayurbhanj argued to have arrived through Tamluk.)

• Guangzhou (Canton)

  Guangzhou is a great port city in south China. A Chinese Buddhist monk sailed from here all the way to India, more than a thousand years ago.

  Earliest: Post-Gupta centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 27]

  1. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 27 ('Yi-Jing, who took the maritime route to India, left the Guang-Zhou region in China and visited Fo-che, Mo-lo-yu and Sumatra ... While returning to China, he took the same route.' Citing Chavannes's 1894 translation of Yijing.)

• Kedah (Kataha)

  Kedah was a stopping place on the Malay Peninsula where old sailing ships waited for the right winds. A Chinese monk passed through it twice on his voyage to India and back.

  Earliest: Post-Gupta centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 27]

  1. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 27 (Yijing 'proceeded northwest to Kie-tcha. Then, he proceeded east and reached the Nicobar Islands ... Proceeding northwest from these islands, Yi-Jing reached Tamralipti.' Returning to China 'he took the same route, landing again at Kie-tcha and Fo-che.' Citing Chavannes's 1894 translation.)

• Palembang (Fo-che)

  Palembang was the great capital of the Srivijaya sea kingdom in Sumatra. A Chinese monk sailed there on his way to and from India, thirteen hundred years ago.

  Earliest: Post-Gupta centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 27]

  1. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 27 (Yijing 'left the Guang-Zhou region ... visited Fo-che, Mo-lo-yu and Sumatra ... proceeded northwest to Kie-tcha ... reached the Nicobar Islands ... Tamralipti.' Returning, 'landing again at Kie-tcha and Fo-che.' Citing Chavannes's 1894 translation.)

• Nagapattinam

  Nagapattinam is an old port town on the Tamil Nadu coast. Kings from faraway Sumatra and Java paid to build Buddhist temples there for the traders who visited.

  Earliest: Bhauma-Kara

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Dayalan, 2019, offprint pp. 7-8, section 'Nagappattinam']

  1. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint pp. 7-8, section 'Nagappattinam' ('Nagappattinam (10 deg 47' N; 79 deg 50' E) ...' Diggings 1856-1934 'yielded as many as 350 Buddhist bronze images ranging from the 9th ... to the 16th-17th centuries CE.' Leyden copper plates record a vihara built by the Srivijaya king there, permitted by Rajaraja Chola I.)

• Cuttack

  Cuttack stands on a tongue of land where the Mahanadi river splits in two. Boats carried its fine cloth and silver work down the river and out to sea.

  Earliest: Somavamshi

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 92, 98]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. ii, p. 40]; [Patra, n.d., p. 111]

  1. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 92, 98 (p. 98: 'Cuttack City (Kataka, the fort) ... situated in 20 deg 29' N. and 85 deg 52' E., on the peninsula formed by the bifurcation of the Mahanadi'; 'connected by canal with Chandbali and False Point'. p. 92: chief trade centres are Cuttack city, False Point and Chandbali; weekly steamers.)
  2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. ii, p. 40 ('the Orissa factors bought up at the lowest prices for ready money the fine muslins of Cattack' - Cuttack cloth reaching the sea through the English factories at Pippli and Balasore in the 17th century.)
  3. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 111 (Excavation at Barabati fort, on the right bank of the Mahanadi in Cuttack district, yielded 'a few sherds of Chinese ceramics'. The printed coordinate ('Lat 20 deg 29' N. and Long. 85 deg E') has a defective longitude.)

• Khalkatapatna

  Khalkatapatna was a busy river port near Konark about 800 years ago. Diggers found Chinese plates, Chinese coins and a hard brick floor for loading boats.

  Earliest: Somavamshi

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patra, 2014, p. 119]; [Patra, n.d., p. 112]; [Patnaik, 2014a, p. 105]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 22, section 'Khalkattapatna']; [Tripati, 2015, pp. 373-374]

  1. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 119 ('The excavation at Khalkattapatna (Lat. 19 deg 51' 13" N and Long. 86 deg 02' 40" E) in the Puri district by the Excavation Branch IV of the ASI (1984-1985)'. 11 km east of Konarak on the left bank of the Kushabhadra. Material assigned to c. 12th-14th century CE; a single cultural deposit.)
  2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 112 (Brick-jelly floor read as a loading platform; Chinese celadon and porcelain with blue floral design, egg-white glazed and chocolate glazed ware; two circular Chinese copper coins with a square central hole, c. 14th century CE; 143 antiquities including beads, bangles and coins of native rulers.)
  3. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , p. 105 ('the excavation at Khalkatapatna near Konark focuses on the trade activities during Ganga period ... flourished during 11th century A.D. The evidence found from excavation (1987, ASI) are a brick jetty floor, Chinese Celadonware, Chinese porcelain ...')
  4. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 22, section 'Khalkattapatna' (Gives 19 deg 51' N; 86 deg 02' E and the same 12th-14th century CE range, citing Indian Archaeology 1985-86 - A Review, p. 56 and B. K. Sinha (1992). Journal pagination not verified.)
  5. Sila Tripati, R. Mani Murali, Jaya Kumar Seelam, Atula Kumar Pradhan, Rudra Prasad Behera, Richa Choudhury. *Khalkattapatna port: the lost archaeological heritage of Odisha, east coast of India*. in Current Science 109. 2015 , pp. 373-374 (Confirms the brick jelly floor read as a loading platform, and Chinese celadon/porcelain. Gives three Chinese coins (two fragmentary, one intact), where older sources here count two. Parallels the stamped ware with finds at Kota China, Johore Lama and Bagan, and at Kottapatnam/Motupalli.)

• Puri

  Puri is the town of the great Jagannath temple, right beside the sea. Sailors steered by its tall temple, but the open beach made a poor harbour.

  Earliest: Somavamshi

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), p. 15]; [Patnaik, 2014a, p. 107]; [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XX, p. 411, 'Puri Town']

  1. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Puri (1908), p. 15 ('The only port in the district is Puri, and this is nothing but an unprotected roadstead. It is open for import and export trade from the middle of October to the middle of March, but during the rest of the year, the surf does not allow of ships being laden or unladen.')
  2. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , p. 107 (Kempthorn's sailing directions of 1679, folio 136-68: 'from Maneclapatam to Jauggernaut course is East-North East and distance is 10 miles.' Ship logs of Capt. Talbot (1680), Hide (1681) and Lake (1683). The author concludes Puri 'was used as a Port from Arab period (10th Century A.D)'.)
  3. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XX, p. 411, 'Puri Town' ('situated in 19 deg 48' N. and 85 deg 49' E., on the coast', population 49,334 in 1901; 'Puri is a city of lodging-houses, being destitute alike of manufactures or commerce on any considerable scale.')

• Pipli

  An old government report called Pipli 'the most important port on the Orissa coast,' near the mouth of the Subarnarekha river. Sand slowly blocked the river, and today nothing of the town is left.

  Earliest: Gajapati

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Hunter, 1872, vol. ii, pp. 37-40, 196]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 9, 34 n., 36-37, 204]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 23]

  1. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. ii, pp. 37-40, 196 (p. 37: about 1514 the Portuguese were pushed north to the Subarnarekha mouth and founded a colony at 'Pippli, now a ruined and silt-locked village ... but then a fine harbour'. p. 196: the 1634 firman restricted English vessels to 'no other port than Pippli, near Balasor'.)
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 9, 34 n., 36-37, 204 (p. 204: 'Pipli was once the most important port on the Orissa coast and contained settlements of the Portuguese and Dutch. The Portuguese settled there in 1599 ... a great slave mart.' p. 9: 'By the beginning of the 18th century the silting up of its mouth had ruined Pipli.')
  3. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 23 (Lists Pipli among the Odisha seaports in active contact with British, Danish, Dutch, French and Portuguese traders in the 16th-18th centuries. Journal pagination not verified.)

• Balasore

  Balasore was the first place in Bengal where English traders built a factory. Big ships waited far out at sea while small boats carried goods up the winding river.

  Earliest: Mughal and Maratha rule

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09), 1908, vol. VI, pp. 245-246, 'Balasore Town']; [Hunter, 1872, vol. ii, pp. 39-40, 196-197]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 9, 34-37, 144, 186]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 23]

  1. *The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09)*. 1908. public domain , vol. VI, pp. 245-246, 'Balasore Town' ('situated in 21 deg 30' N. and 86 deg 56' E., on the right bank of the Burhabalang river'. 'Balasore was the first place occupied by the English in Bengal. It owed its importance ... to the safety of its roadstead.' Earliest mention in the English records is 1633.)
  2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. ii, pp. 39-40, 196-197 (p. 39: 'These two Orissa harbours - Pippli, founded in 1635, and Balasor, founded in 1642 - formed the basis of our future greatness in Bengal.' p. 40: silting of the Subarnarekha moved the Pippli factory to Balasore. p. 197: in 1688 Captain Heath attacks and plunders the town.)
  3. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 9, 34-37, 144, 186 (p. 144: 'At the commencement of the 19th century Balasore was the only port of which Orissa could boast, and it was frequented chiefly by vessels from Madras, which put in for cargoes of rice, and by the Laccadive and Maldive islanders.' pp. 34-37: Cartwright, the Dutch, Danes and French.)
  4. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 23 (Lists Balasore among the Odisha seaports with active British, Danish, Dutch, French and Portuguese contacts in the 16th-18th centuries. Journal pagination not verified.)

• Hariharpur

  Hariharpur was a trading post in the middle of the Mahanadi delta. English traders built a house there in 1633, but fever and floods soon drove them away.

  Earliest: Mughal and Maratha rule

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 34-35, 37]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 23]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. ii, Appendix IV, p. 156]

  1. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 34-35, 37 (p. 34: after the governor's licence to Ralph Cartwright, 'They built a house of business at Hariharpur, on a channel half way down the delta'. p. 35: the Swan 'anchored off the Mughal customs-station of Harishpur' on 22 July 1633; five of six factors died and the delta factory decayed.)
  2. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 23 (Lists Harishpur among the Odisha seaports with active British, Danish, Dutch, French and Portuguese trade contacts in the 16th-18th centuries. Journal pagination not verified.)
  3. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. ii, Appendix IV, p. 156 (Cuttack district fiscal-division table lists them as two separate units: '(32) Hariharpur (Jagatsinhpur), 65.37 square miles ... (33) Harishpur Kila, 62.09 square miles.' Confirms they are distinct parganas, not a spelling variant.)

• Sambalpur

  Sambalpur is a town far up the Mahanadi river, deep inland. Boats carried salt, spices and pots up to Sambalpur and came back loaded with diamonds, iron, silk and grain.

  Earliest: Mughal and Maratha rule

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, pp. 194, 218]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. ii, Appendix III, p. 74]; [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., vol. XXII, pp. 12-13 (Sambalpur District)]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , pp. 194, 218 ('Formerly salt was an important article of export by way of the great road leading along the Mahanadi to Sembelpur and Berar ... more than three lacs of maunds being exported annually.' p. 218: the salt monopoly's revenue exceeded all the land rents.)
  2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. ii, Appendix III, p. 74 (Mahanadi river towns 'carry salt, spices, cocoa-nuts, and brass utensils up to Sambalpur ... bringing thence, in exchange, cotton, wheat, oil-seeds, clarified butter, oil, molasses, iron, turmeric, tasar cloth, rice.')
  3. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , vol. XXII, pp. 12-13 (Sambalpur District) (Diamonds worked at Hirakud 'when Sambalpur was under native rule'; '160 native furnaces' making iron; sal forest of 238 sq. miles; tasar silk-weaving 'an important industry'; salt now 'brought by rail instead of river as formerly.')

• Balugaon

  Balugaon is a town on the shore of Chilika lake where boats brought in fish and grain. A train station here let goods travel on to faraway markets.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley & Mansfield, Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteers: Puri (1929), pp. 204-205, 212-213]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., same, p. 220]

  1. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley & Mansfield, Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteers: Puri (1929), pp. 204-205, 212-213 (The District Fishery Officer's headquarters 'were at Puri, but were recently shifted to Balugaon on the Chilka lake.' 'From Balugaon and Kalupara Ghat the greater part of the traffic is the export of fish and grain.')
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , same, p. 220 (On the Bengal-Nagpur Railway main line: stations 'most important ... in point of passenger traffic' include Balugaon, and it is also named among the busiest 'in point of goods traffic'.)

• Calcutta

  Calcutta was the capital of British India, standing on the bank of the Hooghly river. Steamers carried rice and passengers there from the Odisha coast every week.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09), 1908, vol. IX, p. 260, 'Calcutta']; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), p. 144]; [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 92, 98]

  1. *The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09)*. 1908. public domain , vol. IX, p. 260, 'Calcutta' ('Capital of the Indian Empire and the official residence of the Viceroy and Governor-General, situated in 22 deg 34' N. and 88 deg 22' E., on the east or left bank of the Hooghly river ... The city lies about 86 miles from the sea.')
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), p. 144 ('The ports which trade with Chandbali and Balasore are Calcutta, the coast ports from Bombay on the west to Arakan on the east, and foreign ports, such as the Maldive islands, Ceylon, and occasionally Mauritius.' Steamers ran three times a week between Chandbali and Calcutta.)
  3. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 92, 98 (p. 92: steamers ply from Cuttack city to Chandbali by canal and from Chandbali to Calcutta by sea; the chief imports of Cuttack district - piece-goods, kerosene, metals, yarn, spices - come from Calcutta. p. 98: Cuttack is connected by canal with Chandbali and False Point.)

• Chandbali

  Chandbali is a river port far up the Baitarani, safe from storms out at sea. A hundred years ago steamers left here for Calcutta three times a week.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 10, 144-145, 197-198]; [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, p. 92]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. ii, Appendix IV, pp. 107-108]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 23]

  1. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), pp. 10, 144-145, 197-198 (p. 197: 'Chandbali - Port in the Bhadrakh subdivision, situated on the left bank of the Baitarani river ... 20 miles from its mouth, in 20 deg 47' N. and 86 deg 45' E.' p. 144: it and Balasore are the only ports of importance, trading with Calcutta, Bombay to Arakan, the Maldives and Ceylon.)
  2. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, p. 92 ('The chief trade centres are Cuttack city, False Point port, and Chandbali, which is situated just outside the District.' 'Steamers carrying passengers and goods ply three times a week from Cuttack city to Chandbali port by canal, and from Chandbali to Calcutta by sea.')
  3. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. ii, Appendix IV, pp. 107-108 (The Dhamra estuary, the channel that serves Chandbali, 'was declared a port by Government Notification, No. 877, of the 18th May 1858 ... As a port for native shippers, it ranks next to that of Balasor among the Orissa harbours.' Hunter, writing in 1872, does not yet name Chandbali itself.)
  4. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 23 (Lists Chandabali among the Odisha seaports in active European trade contact in the late medieval period. Journal pagination not verified.)

• Dhamra

  Dhamra is a port where two big rivers, the Brahmani and the Baitarani, join and flow into the sea. A government order made it an official port in 1858, even though a sandbank at its mouth made the entrance tricky.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Hunter, 1872, vol. ii, Appendix IV, pp. 107-108]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), p. 8]

  1. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. ii, Appendix IV, pp. 107-108 (The Dhamra estuary 'was declared a port by Government Notification, No. 877, of the 18th May 1858 ... it ranks next to that of Balasor among the Orissa harbours.' Same quote already used for 'chandbali', cited here as it describes Dhamra itself, before Chandbali existed.)
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), p. 8 ('The Dhamra ... is a fine estuary formed by the junction of the Brahmani and Baitarani rivers.' 'A dangerous bar ... vessels drawing 18 feet can pass in with safety.' 'Chandbali ... absorbed the trade of the old port of Dhamra'. From archive.org OCR, PARI.bengal-district-gazetteers-balasore.)

• False Point

  False Point is a spot on the Odisha coast where the Mahanadi river reaches the sea. Ships anchored here in an open roadstead because it was the only real anchorage along this stretch of coast.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley & Cousins, Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteers: Cuttack, 2nd edn (1933), pp. 7-8]; [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 92, 98]

  1. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley & Cousins, Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteers: Cuttack, 2nd edn (1933), pp. 7-8 (p. 7: 'False Point ... constitutes the only anchorage on the coast.' p. 8: 'a comparatively exposed anchorage, now rapidly silting up'; Mahanadi mouth 'debouches ... south of the False Point lighthouse'. Read from archive.org OCR, item PARI.bihar-and-orissa-district-gazetteers-cuttack.)
  2. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. XI, pp. 92, 98 (Already cited under the 'cuttack' port entry: p. 92, 'the chief trade centres are Cuttack city, False Point port, and Chandbali'; p. 98, Cuttack connected by canal 'with Chandbali and False Point.' Confirms it as a named trade centre, independently of the Cuttack gazetteer.)

• Gopalpur

  Gopalpur was the main port of the Ganjam coast in south Odisha. Ships had to anchor out in the open sea because there is no shelter from the waves.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09), 1908, vol. XII, pp. 152, 329-330]; [Patra, 2014, p. 121]; [Dayalan, 2019, offprint p. 21, section 'Palur']

  1. *The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09)*. 1908. public domain , vol. XII, pp. 152, 329-330 (p. 329: 'Gopalpur - Chief port of Ganjam District, Madras, situated in 19 deg 16' N. and 84 deg 53' E.' A call for British India Steam Navigation coasting steamers; in 1903-4, 7,400 passengers went to and 8,300 returned from Burma. p. 330: 'an open roadstead with no shelter whatever'.)
  2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 121 (Gerini identified Ptolemy's apheterion, where ships bound for Khryse left the coast, with modern Gopalpur below the Rushikulya mouth; Patra argues instead for Mansurkota near Gopalpur, citing Maltby, The Ganjam District Manual, p. 31.)
  3. Duraiswamy Dayalan. *Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network*. in Acta Via Serica 4. 2019 , offprint p. 21, section 'Palur' (Repeats Gerini's identification of Ptolemy's apheterion with modern Gopalpur. Journal pagination not verified.)

• Rangoon

  Rangoon is a port on a river in Burma, now called Yangon. A hundred years ago ships and thousands of workers sailed there from the Odisha coast.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09), 1908, vol. XXI, pp. 213-214, 'Rangoon City'; vol. XII, pp. 152, 329]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), p. 144]

  1. *The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907-09)*. 1908. public domain , vol. XXI, pp. 213-214, 'Rangoon City'; vol. XII, pp. 152, 329 (vol. XXI p. 213: 'Capital of Burma ... situated in 16 deg 46' N. and 96 deg 11' E. ... 21 miles from the sea.' vol. XII p. 152: exports of the Ganjam ports go chiefly to Calcutta, Madras, Bombay ... Rangoon and Moulmein, with much passenger traffic to and from Rangoon at the three ports.)
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteers: Balasore (1907), p. 144 (Chandbali and Balasore traded with 'the coast ports from Bombay on the west to Arakan on the east', placing the Burmese coast inside the same shipping circuit; Arakan, not Rangoon, is the port named.)