Goods & Commodities

All goods

• Cotton cloth and muslin

  Kautilya's handbook put Kalinga on its short list of the seven best cotton-weaving lands in India.

  Earliest: Mauryan Kalinga

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Kautilya, n.d., Book II, ch. 11]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. II, pp. 40, 247]; [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]

  1. Kautilya. *Arthashastra*. n.d. public domain , Book II, ch. 11 ('Of cotton fabrics, those of Madhura, of Aparanta, of Kalinga, of Kasi, of Vanga, of Vatsa, and of Mahisha are the best.' Read in Shamasastry's translation, p. 84.)
  2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II, pp. 40, 247 (p. 40: the Orissa factors 'bought up at the lowest prices for ready money the fine muslins of Cattack'. p. 247: 'the Cattack and Balasor muslins formed an important item in the yearly Investments'.)
  3. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 ('Piece goods' heads both the list of exports liable to duty and the list of goods imported from the adjoining districts of Bengal.)

• Elephants

  A stone carving at Bhubaneswar shows an elephant standing on the deck of a ship, ready to sail away.

  Earliest: Mauryan Kalinga

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Kautilya, n.d., Book II, ch. 2]; [Xuanzang, 7th century CE, vol. II, p. 207]; [Patra, n.d., p. 114]; [Stirling, 1825, p. 182]

  1. Kautilya. *Arthashastra*. n.d. public domain , Book II, ch. 2 ('Elephants bred in countries, such as Kalinga, Anga, Karusa, and the East are the best.' Read in R. Shamasastry's translation, Mysore Printing and Publishing House, p. 49 (archive.org in.ernet.dli.2015.102722). Kangle's numbering not verified.)
  2. Xuanzang. *Record of the Western Regions (Da Tang Xiyu Ji)*. 7th century CE. public domain , vol. II, p. 207 (Beal 1884: Kalinga 'produces the great tawny wild elephant, which are much prized by neighbouring provinces'; neighbouring Kongoda has 'the great greenish-blue elephant'.)
  3. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 114 (Brahmeswar temple ship frieze, c. 9th century CE: 'elephant was an item of export among many other items'.)
  4. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 182 (On wild elephants poisoned near Mayurbhanj: 'it seems highly probable that the Elephant is not indigenous to the province, and it is said that the breed had its origin in the escape of some of the tame animals from their keepers in former ages.')

• Semi-precious stone beads

  At Palur, archaeologists found beads of carnelian, agate, jasper, quartz and faience, small enough to fit in your pocket but valuable enough to trade.

  Earliest: Mauryan Kalinga

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Sahu, 2026, Times of India, 1 August 2026]

  1. Diana Sahu. *Digging at Palur reveals thriving maritime hub from pre-Mauryan era*. in The Times of India. 2026 , Times of India, 1 August 2026 ('The assemblage includes beads made of carnelian, agate, jasper, quartz and faience, besides glass bangles, ivory artefacts and shell objects, pointing to Palur's participation in long-distance trade networks linking eastern India with Southeast Asia.')

• Amphora jars

  Bits of amphorae, the tall two-handled jars used all round the Roman world, turned up at Manikapatna and Palur.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patra, n.d., pp. 109, 111]; [Patra, 2014, p. 120]

  1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 109, 111 (p. 109: exploration around Palur (Kantigarh) 'unearthed fragments of the Chinese celadon ware, the Roman rouletted ware, amphora pieces etc.'. p. 111: Manikapatna yielded 'Roman rouletted pottery and fragments of amphora'.)
  2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 120 ('The discovery of rouletted ware, fragments of amphora etc., indicate its contact with the Roman Empire in the early centuries CE' (Manikapatna).)

• Ivory

  Greek sailors had a special name for elephant tusks from this coast: Dosarenic ivory.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Anonymous, 1989, section 62]; [Patra, 2014, p. 122]

  1. Anonymous. *The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation, and Commentary*. trans. Lionel Casson. Princeton University Press. 1989 , section 62 ('Dosarene, yielding the ivory known as Dosarenic'. Section number is standard across editions. Casson's page NOT verified: the 1989 Princeton edition is lending-restricted on archive.org, so the wording was read in W. H. Schoff's 1912 translation via ToposText.)
  2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , p. 122 ('The ivory yielded in Dosarene was known as dosarenic'; also summarises the rival identifications of Dosarene.)

• Roman coins

  Real Roman coins have been dug up both at Kalingapatnam and in the Mayurbhanj hills.

  Earliest: Early historic centuries

  ~ Probable ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Patra, n.d., p. 110]; [Patra, 2014, pp. 122-123]

  1. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , p. 110 ('Roman gold coins from Bamanghati in Mayurbhanj' are 'argued to have arrived through Tamluk' (Tamralipti), alongside large quantities of rouletted ware from the port.)
  2. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 122-123 (At Kalingapatnam, on the Vamsadhara mouth: an excavation in 1928 found pottery, brick walls and glazed tiles, and ASI work of 1977-79 dated settlement to 300 BCE; Roman coins are reported from the site.)

• Cowrie shells

  In 1804 a silver rupee was officially worth 5,120 cowrie shells. By Hunter's day it bought only 3,584.

  Earliest: Post-Gupta centuries

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Xuanzang, 7th century CE, vol. II, p. 207]; [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. II, p. 167]

  1. Xuanzang. *Record of the Western Regions (Da Tang Xiyu Ji)*. 7th century CE. public domain , vol. II, p. 207 (Beal 1884, on Kongoda: 'They use cowrie shells and pearls in commercial transactions.')
  2. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 ('a small supply of couris, cocoanuts, coral, and dried fish is obtained from the few Maldive vessels, which resort annually to Balasore and Dhamra'.)
  3. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II, p. 167 ('From time immemorial Orissa... has used a local currency of cowries'; the 1804 official rate of 5,120 cowries to the rupee and the 1872 rate of 3,584.)

• Chinese ceramics

  Diggers at Manikapatna and Khalkatapatna found Chinese celadon, porcelain and two little Chinese copper coins.

  Earliest: Eastern Ganga

  ✓ Strongly Supported ◆ Archaeology

  Sources: [Tripati, 2021, p. 1212]; [Patra, n.d., pp. 111-112]; [Patnaik, 2014a, p. 105]; [Patra, 2014, pp. 119-120]

  1. Sila Tripati. *Indo-Arabian stone anchor of Manikapatna, Odisha, east coast of India: an indicator of maritime contacts of Odisha*. in Current Science 120. 2021 , p. 1212 (Manikapatna finds include 'Chinese porcelain (1368-1644 CE)... belonging to Yuan and Ming dynasties' and a coin of the Jiaqing Emperor of the Qing dynasty.)
  2. Sushanta Kumar Patra, Benudhar Patra. *Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa*. in Orissa Historical Research Journal XLVII. n.d. , pp. 111-112 ('Chinese celadone ware, white porcelain, blue, white and brown glazed porcelain sherds' at Manikapatna; celadon, porcelain and two Chinese copper coins of c. 14th century at Khalkatapatna.)
  3. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , p. 105 (Manikapatna finds list includes Chinese celadon, porcelain and a Chinese coin.)
  4. Benudhar Patra. *Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective*. in Odisha Review. 2014 , pp. 119-120 (Khalkatapatna, c. 12th-14th century CE: Chinese celadon ware, porcelain with blue floral design on white, two Chinese copper coins datable to c. 14th century.)

• Diamonds

  Hirakud means 'diamond island': searchers called Jharias sifted the Mahanadi's sand and were paid in land.

  Earliest: Mughal and Maratha rule

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., vol. XXII, p. 12 (Sambalpur District)]; [McCrindle, 1927, pp. 71, 169, 333]

  1. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , vol. XXII, p. 12 (Sambalpur District) ('When Sambalpur was under native rule diamonds were obtained in the island of Hirakud (diamond island) in the Mahanadi. The Jharias or diamond-seekers were rewarded with grants of land... The diamonds, which are of very poor quality, [were] leased by the British Government for Rs. 200.')
  2. John Watson McCrindle. *Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy*. ed. Surendranath Majumdar Sastri. Calcutta: Chuckervertty, Chatterjee & Co. 1927. public domain , pp. 71, 169, 333 (p. 169: 'The Sambalaka of the Mandalai may perhaps be Sambhalpur on the Upper Mahanadi, the capital of a district which produces the finest diamonds in the world'. p. 71: 'Adamas is a Greek word meaning diamond'. p. 333: V. Ball's objection to the identifications.)

• Salt

  Boats carried salt upriver to Sambalpur and came back loaded with cotton, wheat, oil-seeds and rice.

  Earliest: Mughal and Maratha rule

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, pp. 194, 218]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. I, p. 41; vol. II, pp. 159-162; vol. II Appendix III, p. 74]; [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., vol. XXII, p. 13 (Sambalpur District)]; [Patnaik, 2014a, p. 104]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , pp. 194, 218 (p. 194: 'formerly salt was an important article of export by way of the great road leading along the Mahanadi to Sembelpur and Berar... more than three lacs of maunds being exported annually'. p. 218: the salt monopoly's revenue exceeds all the land rents.)
  2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. I, p. 41; vol. II, pp. 159-162; vol. II Appendix III, p. 74 (vol. I p. 41: 'The only manufacture of Parikud is salt', solar and boiled processes. vol. II: the Tributary States and Central Provinces send rice, grain, oil-seeds and cotton to the coast 'in exchange for salt' (page not isolable: between the running heads for pp. 159 and 162).)
  3. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , vol. XXII, p. 13 (Sambalpur District) ('Salt comes principally from Ganjam, and is now brought by rail instead of river as formerly.')
  4. Sunil Kumar Patnaik. *Puri: A Study of Early Trade and Pilgrim Routes*. in Odisha Review. 2014a , p. 104 (Abul Fazl described Manikapatna as a sea port where taxes were collected; reported here as a salt-tax centre.)

• Brass utensils

  Brass pots and pans rode up the Mahanadi river on the same boats as salt and coconuts.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Hunter, 1872, vol. II Appendix III, p. 74]

  1. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II Appendix III, p. 74 (Mahanadi river towns 'carry salt, spices, cocoa-nuts, and brass utensils up to Sambalpur'.)

• Catechu (kutha)

  Kutha, a thick juice squeezed from the khair tree, was taxed as it left Cuttack for tanning leather.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 (Exports liable to duty include "kut'h (the inspissated juice of the khayar or mimosa chadira)", alongside bees wax, iron, oil, lac, stone plates and sal timber.)

• Coconuts

  Maldive ships brought coconuts to Balasore and Dhamra every year, and boats carried them on up the Mahanadi.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. II Appendix III, p. 74]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 ('a small supply of couris, cocoanuts, coral, and dried fish is obtained from the few Maldive vessels, which resort annually to Balasore and Dhamra, to take on board cargoes of rice and earthen pots.')
  2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II Appendix III, p. 74 (Mahanadi river towns 'carry salt, spices, cocoa-nuts, and brass utensils up to Sambalpur... bringing thence, in exchange, cotton, wheat, oil-seeds, clarified butter, oil, molasses, iron, turmeric, tasar cloth, rice'.)

• Coral

  Maldive ships carried coral to Balasore and Dhamra, alongside cowrie shells and coconuts.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 ('a small supply of couris, cocoanuts, coral, and dried fish is obtained from the few Maldive vessels, which resort annually to Balasore and Dhamra'.)

• Earthen pots

  Maldive ships filled their holds with Odisha rice and clay pots before sailing home.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 (Maldive vessels 'resort annually to Balasore and Dhamra, to take on board cargoes of rice and earthen pots'.)

• Fish and dried fish

  Dried fish arrived on Maldive ships in the 1820s, and fresh Chilika fish left by train about a century later.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]; [District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions, n.d., O'Malley & Mansfield, Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteers: Puri (1929), pp. 204-205]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 ('a small supply of couris, cocoanuts, coral, and dried fish is obtained from the few Maldive vessels, which resort annually to Balasore and Dhamra'.)
  2. *District Gazetteers (Cuttack, Puri, Ganjam, Balasore), British-era editions*. n.d. public domain , O'Malley & Mansfield, Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteers: Puri (1929), pp. 204-205 ('From Balugaon and Kalupara Ghat the greater part of the traffic is the export of fish and grain'; the District Fishery Officer's headquarters had recently moved from Puri to Balugaon on Chilika lake.)

• Ghee (clarified butter)

  Pots of ghee travelled down the Mahanadi by boat, on their way to the coast.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Hunter, 1872, vol. II Appendix III, p. 74]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. II, p. 102]

  1. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II Appendix III, p. 74 (Mahanadi river towns carry goods up to Sambalpur, 'bringing thence, in exchange, cotton, wheat, oil-seeds, clarified butter, oil, molasses, iron, turmeric, tasar cloth, rice'.)
  2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II, p. 102 ('The trade of the Tributary States consists of rice, sugar-cane, oil seeds, clarified butter, cotton, coarse cereals, timber, lac, turmeric, beeswax, and other jungle products.')

• Iron

  Sambalpur still had 160 village furnaces turning out about 1,120 hundredweight of iron every year.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]; [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., vol. XXII, p. 12 (Sambalpur District)]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. II Appendix III, p. 74]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 ('The exports liable to duty are as follows: Piece goods, bees wax, iron, kut'h..., oil, lac, stone plates, sal timber, congni wood...')
  2. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , vol. XXII, p. 12 (Sambalpur District) ('Iron ores occur in most of the hilly country on the borders of the District... There are 160 native furnaces, which produce about 1,120 cwt. of iron annually.')
  3. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II Appendix III, p. 74 (Mahanadi river towns 'carry salt, spices, cocoa-nuts, and brass utensils up to Sambalpur... bringing thence, in exchange, cotton, wheat, oil-seeds, clarified butter, oil, molasses, iron, turmeric, tasar cloth, rice'.)

• Lac and beeswax

  Lac is a red resin made by tiny insects. Whole communities lived by gathering it, with beeswax, honey and dyes.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. II, p. 102; vol. II Appendix III, p. 75]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 (Exports liable to duty include 'bees wax' and 'lac'.)
  2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II, p. 102; vol. II Appendix III, p. 75 (p. 102: 'The trade of the Tributary States consists of rice, sugar-cane, oil seeds, clarified butter, cotton, coarse cereals, timber, lac, turmeric, beeswax, and other jungle products.' Appendix III p. 75 names the collecting communities, including Kols 'who sell resin, lac, wax'.)

• Molasses

  Sticky molasses travelled down the Mahanadi river, swapped for salt going the other way.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Hunter, 1872, vol. II Appendix III, p. 74]

  1. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II Appendix III, p. 74 (Mahanadi river towns carry salt and other goods up to Sambalpur, 'bringing thence, in exchange, cotton, wheat, oil-seeds, clarified butter, oil, molasses, iron, turmeric, tasar cloth, rice'.)

• Oilseeds and vegetable oil

  Boats loaded with oil-seeds and oil floated down the Mahanadi towards the coast.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Hunter, 1872, vol. II Appendix III, p. 74]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. II, p. 102]

  1. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II Appendix III, p. 74 (Mahanadi river towns carry goods up to Sambalpur, 'bringing thence, in exchange, cotton, wheat, oil-seeds, clarified butter, oil, molasses, iron, turmeric, tasar cloth, rice'.)
  2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II, p. 102 ('The trade of the Tributary States consists of rice, sugar-cane, oil seeds, clarified butter, cotton, coarse cereals, timber, lac, turmeric, beeswax, and other jungle products.')

• Rice

  Ships from the Maldive Islands sailed all the way to Balasore just to fill up with rice and clay pots.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. II Appendix I, p. 13; vol. II, pp. 159-162]; [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., vol. XXII, p. 13 (Sambalpur District)]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 ('A considerable exportation of rice takes place from the several small ports along the coast to Calcutta'; Maldive vessels 'resort annually to Balasore and Dhamra, to take on board cargoes of rice and earthen pots'.)
  2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II Appendix I, p. 13; vol. II, pp. 159-162 (Appendix I (Puri): at Machhagaon near the Devi river mouth 'a considerable export rice trade is done here'; Pipli and Bhubaneswar are 'seats of a considerable trade in rice and cloth'.)
  3. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , vol. XXII, p. 13 (Sambalpur District) ('Rice is the staple export of Sambalpur, being sent principally to Calcutta, but also to Bombay and Berar.')

• Sal timber

  Tolls on timber in Ganjam were so steep that a shilling's worth cost one shilling and fourpence to move 42 miles.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. II, p. 235; vol. II Appendix III, p. 75]; [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., vol. XXII, p. 12 (Sambalpur District)]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 (Exports liable to duty include 'sal timber, congni wood, karbeli, shirbeli'.)
  2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II, p. 235; vol. II Appendix III, p. 75 (p. 235: 'the transit dues on timber mounting up 133 per cent. on a journey of 42 miles' in Ganjam District. Appendix III p. 75: 'The chief marketable timber of the Tributary States is Sal.')
  3. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , vol. XXII, p. 12 (Sambalpur District) (Sal forest covers about 238 square miles; 1903-4 forest revenue Rs. 34,000, of which Rs. 10,000 came from timber and Rs. 12,000 from bamboos.)

• Silk cloth from Bengal

  Fine Bengal silk arrived in Cuttack, while Odisha's own rough tasar silk went the other way.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 ('Piece goods, silk, good tobacco, and every thing in the shape of a luxury, are imported from the adjoining districts of Bengal'.)

• Stone plates

  Stone plates were taxed on their way out of Cuttack, right alongside sal timber.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 (Exports liable to duty: 'Piece goods, bees wax, iron, kut'h..., oil, lac, stone plates, sal timber, congni wood, karbeli, shirbeli and petty articles.')

• Tasar silk

  Tasar silk comes from wild forest silkworms, and a whole caste, the Kostas, made their living dealing in it.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ✓ Strongly Supported ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Hunter, 1872, vol. II Appendix III, p. 75]; [Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries), n.d., vol. XXII, p. 13 (Sambalpur District)]

  1. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II Appendix III, p. 75 ('The jungle yields an annual supply of resin, lac, tasar, bees-wax, dyes, fibres'; class (9.) 'Kostia, dealers in tasar'.)
  2. *Imperial Gazetteer of India (Orissa entries)*. n.d. public domain , vol. XXII, p. 13 (Sambalpur District) ('Tasar silk-weaving is an important industry in Sambalpur. The cocoons are at present not cultivated locally, but are imported from Chota Nagpur... A little cloth is sent to Ganjam, but the greater part is sold locally.')

• Tobacco

  Good tobacco travelled into Cuttack from Bengal, alongside cloth and silk.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Stirling, 1825, p. 194]

  1. Andrew Stirling. *An Account, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of Orissa Proper or Cuttack*. in Asiatic Researches 15. 1825. public domain , p. 194 ('Piece goods, silk, good tobacco, and every thing in the shape of a luxury, are imported from the adjoining districts of Bengal'.)

• Turmeric

  Bright yellow turmeric floated down the Mahanadi on boats, headed for the coast.

  Earliest: British colonial

  ~ Probable ■ Scholars say

  Sources: [Hunter, 1872, vol. II Appendix III, p. 74]; [Hunter, 1872, vol. II, p. 102]

  1. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II Appendix III, p. 74 (Mahanadi river towns carry goods up to Sambalpur, 'bringing thence, in exchange, cotton, wheat, oil-seeds, clarified butter, oil, molasses, iron, turmeric, tasar cloth, rice'.)
  2. William Wilson Hunter. *Orissa: Or the Vicissitudes of an Indian Province under Native and British Rule*. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1872. public domain , vol. II, p. 102 ('The trade of the Tributary States consists of rice, sugar-cane, oil seeds, clarified butter, cotton, coarse cereals, timber, lac, turmeric, beeswax, and other jungle products.')